I had learned about the definition of an organization and the various features of an organization. An organization is a collection of different people who work together to achieve common targets within a labor division. It is considered to be a parallel development process. Organizations are described as social entities of people which are structured and controlled to achieve the objective or to accomplish the collective aims. An organization gives ways of utilizing the strengths of the individual within a team in order to accomplish more than could be achieved by the joint efforts of team members who work individually (Ahearne et al., 2015). Business organizations are made to supply products or services to the customers in such a way that they could gain profit at the end of the transaction. I had also gained knowledge about the organization theory. I gathered knowledge about the two major roots of organization theory they are, sociologists and management practitioners. Sociologists could be defined as the changing roles and shapes of organizations in community (Bortolott, Boscari and Danese, 2015). Whereas, Management practitioners in the organization theory demonstrates how to solve practical issues. The organization theory consists of different approaches to the evaluation of the organizations. For several years, the business experts, economists, and academic scholars have considered many arguments which try to explain different aspects of business organizations, which comprise the methods of their decisions making, power distribution and control, conflict resolution, and promotion or resistance to organizational changes. Different organizational theories consist of the perspective of the rational system, labor division, bureaucratic theory, and contingency theory. The organization theory examines the organizations to recognize various designs and structures which could be utilized by them to solve the issues, increase the efficacy and productivity, and fulfill the expectations of shareholders. The organization theory then utilizes these designs to make different normative theories which describe the best working processes of organizations.
Moreover, the concept of organizational theory allows the scholars to convert different levels of analysis. I also learned three different perspectives of organization theory, they are modernism, symbolic-interpretivist, and postmodernism. They are useful for thinking about methods towards the organization theory, but in reality, things are a little difficult. There is also classical perspectives of organization theory, they are bureaucratic, scientific and administrative management. The central concept of organizational theory is organizational identity. It comprise of commonly-shared and collective understanding of the organizational characteristics and values. I understood that organizational identity demonstrates distinctive, enduring and central factors about organization’s character. Organizational identity within an organizational theory possess both theoretical and practical relevance. I got to know that it is significant in an increasing fragmented modern world. Organizational identity based on organizational theory is a means of developing organizations capability, motivation and awareness to give response to the actions of competitors (Chia, 2002). It is observed that the organizations who lacks powerful organizational identity related to organizational theory are seen as significantly rudderless. It is determined to be a basic bridging concept between community and individual.
I had gained information about the perspective of organization and environment. Under the modernist view of organizational environment theory I had, I came to know about the contingency theory. The contingency theory perceives the pattern of the organization as an unnatural optimization issue, which means that an organization has to try to increase its performance by decreasing the effects of different environmental and inner restrictions. The contingency theory states that there are no best means to establish a business, to lead an organization, or to make decisions (Coombs, Knights, & Willmott, 1992). An organization, leadership, or decision-making style which are successful in some circumstances, might not be useful in other circumstances. Different internal and external aspects influence an ideal organization, administration, or decision-making style.
Gareth Morgan in his book “Images of Organization” discusses the main concepts about the necessary contingency. The organizations are open systems which require careful management to fulfill and maintain the balance of inner needs in order to adjust in the environmental situations. There are no best means of organizing. The suitable forms are influenced by the types of job or environment the individual has to deal with. The management has to be concerned, above every other factor, with achieving alliances and better fits (Wu, Straub and Liang, 2015). Various kinds of organizations are necessary for various kinds of environments. The contingency model of Fred Fiedler had concentrated on a contingency theory of leadership in organizations. This theory consists of the relations among the leadership styles and the positivity of the circumstance. The situational positivity was explained by Fiedler on the basis of three practical aspects:
Leader-Member Relationship – If the leader is accepted and respected by the supporters, then the leader-member relationship is high.
A degree of Task Structure –If the task is very organized, then the degree of task structure is high.
Leader’s Position Power –If the huge amount of authority and power are appropriately connected with the position of the leader, then the power of leader’s job is high.
If all three aspects are high, then the circumstances are favorable towards the leader.
William Richard Scott had suggested that the best means to organize are always influenced by the environment to which the organization has to be related. The other researchers’ works such as Jay Lorsch, Paul R. Lawrence, and James D. Thompson supports this statement. They are more concerned with the effect of contingency aspects on the structure of the organization. Their organizational contingency theory was the primary example of organizational methods for most of the 1970s. An essential experimental test was carried by Johannes M. Pennings who had studied the connections between environmental uncertainty, organizational structure and different factors of performance (Hatch & Schulz. 2002). Pennings carried out the analysis on retail brokerage workplaces in which different market environmental factors like effectiveness, and change and kindness, contrasted with structural arrangements like patterns of decision making, and distribution of power were compared for possible effects on the performance of the organizations. It could be concluded that there are no best means or method for managing or doing things.
In the lecture of organization and culture, I had studied about the theory of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. The method of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions is the basis for cross-cultural interaction, originated by Geert Hofstede. It defines about the impacts of social culture on the principles of its members, and the relation of these values with the behavior, utilizing a structure taken from factor analysis. The original theory was developed by Hofstede utilizing the factor analysis to study the outcomes of a global survey of values of staffs in IBM between 1967 and 1973 (Jarzabkowski, Lê & Van de Ven, 2013). It has been growing since then. The original theory had suggested four aspects on the basis of which values of culture can be evaluated: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance and masculinity-femininity. A separate study in the city of Hong Kong led Hofstede to a fifth aspect, long-term versus short-term orientation, to protect the factors of values not argued in the original theory. In the year 2010, Hofstede found a sixth aspect, indulgence versus self-restraint.
Power Distance Index (PDI) – In this aspect, inequality and power are observed from the bottom level. A higher Index shows that hierarchy is recognized and carried out in society, without any hesitation or motive (Helms Mills and Mills, 2017). A lower Index means that people doubt the power and try to distribute the power.
Individualism versus. Collectivism (IDV) – This aspect explores the amount to which people in a society are unified in teams. Individualism in societies signifies loose connections which often only connects an individual to their family. Collectivism in societies refers to highly unified relationships and links which are extended families and other people in the teams.
Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) – The societies which have a high degree of uncertainty avoidance selects for strict rules of behavior, instructions, and laws which usually depends on absolute truth or belief where on only truth signifies everything and the people knows about it. A lower UAI means more acceptance of various concepts.
Masculinity versus. Femininity (MAS) – In feminine societies, women have more humble and caring opinions which are equal with the men. In masculine societies, they are confident and aggressive, but less than the men. In other words, it means that MAS still identifies the gaps between the values of men and women.
Long-Term Orientation versus. Short-Term Orientation (LTO) – A lower LTO that is short-term orientation signifies that traditions are respected and kept while maintaining the steadiness. The societies with higher LTO that is long-term orientation observes adaptation, and situational and sensible problem-solving as essential (Vaara & Monin, 2010).
Indulgence versus. Restraint (IND) – It is believed by the societies with an indulgence that they are in control of personal life and feelings. It is believed by societies with the restraint that other aspects dominate their personal life and beliefs.
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are widely utilized in several fields of social life of humans and specifically in the area of business (Henderson, Cheney and Weaver, 2015). The critique Ailon found that there are inconsistencies both at theoretical and methodological levels and warned against the uncritical study of cultural dimensions of Hofstede.
I had gained knowledge about the Perrow’s typology in the class of organization and technology. Charles Perrow, an American sociologist, designed a classification system on the basis of the information needed to operate technology. The technology is a vital element in contingency theory. It is assumed that the different kinds of technology decide the most efficient structure and achievement of an organization in the market. He has utilized two aspects to develop his typology, task variability, and task analyzability.
Task Variability – This aspect studies total exceptions faced in the work of an individual. These exceptions might be less in number if the work is high routine wise. Works which generally have some oddities in their daily practice (Kreiner et al., 2015). On the other hand, if a work has a great deal of variety, lots of limitations could be expected. Generally, this aspect ranges from top positions of management consultation jobs or the work of those who earn by putting off fires on the platforms of offshore oil. Thus, task variability assesses the work by analyzing it with the different regular field.
Task Analyzability – The second aspects examines those processes which are followed to find successful means of responses adequately to exceptions in work. The findings, at one point, could be referred to as well-defined. A person could utilize logical and numerical reasoning in order to find the solution. In comparison, the other aspects could be ill-defined issues. In this situation, the individual has to depend on previous experience, and perceptions in order to find a solution (Stensaker, 2015). By trial and error method, the individual could see the desirable outcomes. This second aspect has been referred by Perrow as a problem analyzability which ranges from well-defined to ill-defined issues.
The two aspects, task variability, and problem analyzability could be utilized to compare a two-by-two matrix. The four cell in this matrix has four kinds of technology, routine, engineering, craft, and non-routine techniques.
Routine – It identifies the lack of exceptions and knowledge depth ness. The traditional technologies of manufacturing like the production lines come under this classification.
Engineering – It considers several exceptions and its depth-ness of knowledge. Some typical and recognized procedures are available to give solutions to the issues (Scott, 2015). The technology of engineering is utilized by most engineers, laboratory technicians, and accountants.
Craft – It recognizes the lack of exceptions and unpredictable consequences which are hard to evaluate. The example of craft technology is the construction jobs which demands the draft of new patterns to find the solution of issues of buildings (Mesmer-Magnus et al., 2018).
Non-Routine – It considers several exceptions and imperfect knowledge. The issues which appear regularly have no comprehensive solutions. An example of a non-routine technology is commercial space engineering.
(Perrow’s Typology)
Perrow had given significance in addressing different technologies in the organizations. He had claimed for examining the techniques at the organizational level. Many organizations have several technologies which work separately. He had observed technology as a factor of corporate uncertainty. A high degree of uncertainty generates difficulty in analyzing different activities and organizing them (Pratt et al., 2016). An organic is favored above a mechanical organization structure by companies utilizing uncertain technologies.
I had learned about modernist perspective under the organizational identity. The modernist aspect of corporate identity recognizes the internal, unique and enduring perceptions of an organization. It could observe and examine the organizational identity. The modernist perspective of organizational identity also aims at describing and measuring different features of corporate identity. The organizational identity is that perspective of organizational theory which finds the response to the question, ‘Who are we as an organization? ‘This idea was first described by Albert and Whetten (1985), and it was modernized and clarified afterward by Whetten (2006). The organizational identity is a collection of commonly-shared knowledge about the principles and features of an organization (Naranjo-Valencia, Jiménez-Jiménez and Sanz-Valle, 2016). Often the organizational identity tries to implement sociological and emotional perceptions and theories regarding the organizational identity. The organizational identity is connected to unrelated part from culture and image of the organization. It considers a greater perception that the work identity, which recognizes the individual’s assumption in a work-related situation and organizational behavior, which identifies the human nature in the context of the organization.
According to Albert and Whetten, the management of organizational identity has been neglected regularly till an organization reaches a particular situation. This might take place in circumstances when a business is experiencing significant development, cut back, or adopted several identities which have become incompatible. While addressing this issue, an organization have to choose the duty of recognizing those factors which honestly describe themselves and their reactions to those descriptions (Orlikowski, 2000). This might lead to different actions like establishing a program to bring changes in the identity which has become negative, creating a character for the promotion and development, impact in a community, or determining those factors for preservation for building cuts in the budget.
The organizational identity consists of those characteristics from the perception of members of the organization which explains past, present, and future of the business. The corporate identity plays a significant function within the organization, and the problems are interpreted, the threats are recognized, management rules are changed, plans are made, and the managers give responses. The organizational identity maintains the loyalty of clients and staffs, strategies are combined, financial targets achieved, and a sense of organization determination is created. The corporate identity decides the alignment of the organization. The best leaders of the organization had made the organizational identity on the basis of core values and theories, which instructs and motivation the organization’s behavior. The best leaders of the organization observe and interpret the problems, recognizes threats, make plans, interact regarding the organization, and find a solution to the conflicts (Nonaka et al., 2014). The conscious of the public are affected by attention from the media, whereas as a member of the organization, staff might have an entirely different viewpoint.
Organizational identity is sometimes affected by communication between the internal and external aspects. The internal elements could impact the corporate identity by re-clarification or disparity with the authorized identity (Neuby, 2016). The external elements of the organizational identity might contribute for the adjustment or towards uncertainty once external opinions clash with internal opinions of the corporate identity.
References
Ahearne, M., Jelinek, R., Mathieu, J., Rapp, A. and Schillewaert, N., 2015. A Longitudinal examination of individual, organizational and contextual factors on technology adoption and job performance. In Creating and Delivering Value in Marketing (pp. 171-171). Springer, Cham.
Alvesson & Willmott., 2002. Organizational control producing the ‘appropriate individual’. Journal of Management Studies, (39): pp.619-644
Bortolotti, T., Boscari, S. and Danese, P., 2015. Successful lean implementation: Organizational culture and soft lean practices. International Journal of Production Economics, 160, pp.182-201.
Chia. 2002. Essai: Time, Duration and Simultaneity: Rethinking Process and Change in Organizational Analysis. Organization Studies (23).pp. 863-868
Coombs, R., Knights, D., & Willmott, H. C., 1992. Culture, control, and competition. Towards a conceptual framework for the study of information technology in organizations. Organization Studies, 13(1), pp.51-72.
Hatch & Schulz. 2002. The dynamics of organizational identity. Human Relations, 55 (8). pp. 989-1018.
Helms Mills, J.C. and Mills, A.J., 2017. Rules, Sensemaking, Formative Contexts, and Discourse in the Gendering of Organizational Culture?. In Insights and Research on the Study of Gender and Intersectionality in International Airline Cultures (pp. 49-69). Emerald Publishing Limited.
Henderson, A., Cheney, G. and Weaver, C.K., 2015. The role of employee identification and organizational identity in strategic communication and organizational issues management about genetic modification. International Journal of Business Communication, 52(1), pp.12-41.
Jarzabkowski, P., Lê, J., & Van de Ven, A. H. 2013. Responding to competing strategic demands: How organizing, belonging, and performing paradoxes coevolve. Strategic Organization.
Kreiner, G.E., Hollensbe, E., Sheep, M.L., Smith, B.R. and Kataria, N., 2015. Elasticity and the dialectic tensions of organizational identity: How can we hold together while we are pulling apart? Academy of Management Journal, 58(4), pp.981-1011.
Mesmer-Magnus, J.R., Asencio, R., Seely, P.W. and DeChurch, L.A., 2018. How organizational identity affects team functioning: The identity instrumentality hypothesis. Journal of Management, 44(4), pp.1530-1550.
Naranjo-Valencia, J.C., Jiménez-Jiménez, D. and Sanz-Valle, R., 2016. Studying the links between organizational culture, innovation, and performance in Spanish companies. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 48(1), pp.30-41.
Neuby, B.L., 2016. Organizational Technology. Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, pp.1-7.
Nonaka, I., Kodama, M., Hirose, A. and Kohlbacher, F., 2014. Dynamic fractal organizations for promoting knowledge-based transformation–A new paradigm for organizational theory. European Management Journal, 32(1), pp.137-146.
Orlikowski, W. J,. 2000. Using technology and constituting structures: A practice lens for studying technology in organizations. Organization Science, 11(4), pp. 404-428.
Pratt, M.G., Schultz, M., Ashforth, B.E. and Ravasi, D., 2016. On the Identity of Organizational Identity: Looking Backwards Towards the Future. In Oxford Handbook of Organizational Identity (pp. 494-500). Oxford University Press.
Scott, W.R., 2015. Organizational theory and higher education. Journal of Organizational Theory in Education, 1(1), pp.68-76.
Stensaker, B., 2015. Organizational identity as a concept for understanding university dynamics. Higher Education, 69(1), pp.103-115.
Vaara & Monin., 2010. A Recursive Perspective on Discursive Legitimation and Organizational Action in Mergers and Acquisitions. Organization Science 21(1). pp 3-22
Wu, S.P.J., Straub, D.W. and Liang, T.P., 2015. How information technology governance mechanisms and strategic alignment influence organizational performance: Insights from a matched survey of business and IT managers. Mis Quarterly, 39(2), pp.497-518.
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