Discuss about the Quantitative Content Analysis in Research.
The assessment considers uses of qualitative and quantitative data analysis which is used in the researches. The application of quantitative method or qualitative research questionnaire in a research depends on the nature and topic of the research which is to be conducted(Tesch 2013). The following areas are discussed below:
The application of qualitative questionnaire is done when the research material involves collection of information which are related numerical data. On the other hand, Qualitative data is collected when the research is related to facts which are associated with the research. In addition to this, Qualitative Research addresses concepts and methods which are used and analyzed during the course of the research (Taylor, Bogdan &DeVault 2015). In the case of Quantitative research, the method allows the researcher to make comparison and conduct analysis which is between two variables of numerical nature. In addition to this, quantitative method allows businesses to consider statistical nature of the data which is provided by the business (Riff, Lacy & Fico 2014). In the end, it can be said that quantitative research contains descriptive research questions that can quantify the specific variables, comparative research questions that can scrutinize the variances between one or more groups and relationship-based research questions that can present distinctions between different causal associations, specific trends along with interactions. Taylor, Bogdan & DeVault (2015) says that qualitative research questions that are necessarily less direct and extensively vague in characteristics are of three different types namely exploratory questions, predictive questions and interpretive questions. In many cases, research questions have a much wider scope than the questions which are related to questionnaires. The questions which are generally asked in a survey are either open end questions or closed end questions. Researchers applies various types of questions such a rating questions, dichotomous questions, likert type scales and other multiple-choice questions which allows the researcher to collect ample information for the purpose of analysis and also achieve the research objectives and goals.
Theories in a research can be used by following qualitative data analysis and in many cases, theories are used to justify concepts which are associated with the research topic. Some of the theories which are used in researches are often used as justifications for explaining variable and also statistical information. Basically, theories are used in a research so as to broaden the application of the concept or notions and also ensure that the same are applied. In case of quantitative analysis, theories are used for explaining the variables involve and also certain calculations. Theories are used in qualitative research in different ways that include grounded theory, phenomenology as well as ethnography. Grounded theory is essentially an inductive research methodology that helps in systematic generation of themes from particularly systematic research. Again, phenomenology is also a qualitative research that is mainly utilized for describing the way human beings experience a specific phenomenon (Taylor, Bogdan & DeVault 2015). Theories are generally used at the beginning of the research especially in the literature review section of the research. The literature review section of the research shows various theories which can be related to the research questions and contributes to the explanations and justification of the research goals and objectives. In addition to this, theories are also applied in the analysis section of the report and also on the conclusion part in order to effectively justify the research questions and aims. The results of the research in many research cases are based on the theories which are shown in the literature review.
The questions which are asked from the participants of the research in case of Qualitative research, information is based information which are collected which generally is open-ended in nature. In case of Quantitative Research, the questions are based on numerical are generally obtained through interview from different individuals. As suggested by Riff, Lacy & Fico (2014), different types of quantitative research questions include descriptive research questions comparative research questions plus relationship-based research questions. Examples of descriptive research questions are how much, what time, with what regularity and what is. Comparative research questions help in identification of clear variances between two or more groups founded on multiple variables. For example, a distinctive comparative research question starts by asking different respondents regarding variations between a specific variable. In itself, a comparative research question can be utilized to quantify a single variable but depending on the requirements of research. Again, relationship based questions include asking participants regarding association or else trend between two or multiple variables with multiple groups. On the other hand, qualitative research questions include exploratory questions, predictive questions and interpretive questions (Riff, Lacy & Fico 2014). Qualitative research questions intend to understand the role that a specific group has over the actions as well as behavior of the system or else part of the same, characterization aimed to understanding better set of factors that can exemplify experimental groups, prediction of different factors, differentiation of responses and thresholds.
In case of a qualitative research, the researcher first needs to decide the participants from whom information are to be collected. The information in qualitative research needs to appropriate and therefore the participant needs to be knowledgeable and resourceful. This also implies that the participant should also have adequate experience in the field. In case of Quantitative research, information can be collected from sample size and the same is based on an opinion of the sample population(Silverman 2016). The information for quantitative research is generally statistical in nature and requires data to be collected from a sample size. As suggested by Tesch (2013), quantitative research calls for standardization of different processes as well as random selection of different participants to do away with potential influence of different external variables and make sure generalization of outcomes. On the contrary, selection of subject in case of qualitative research can be considered to be purposeful. In essence, participants of qualitative research are selected who can properly inform research questions and augment comprehension of phenomenon considered under study. Therefore, one of the most significant tasks in the design phase of the study is to recognize appropriate research participants. In particular, decisions concerning selection are founded on research questions, theoretical perspectives and substantiation informing the study (Riff, Lacy & Fico 2014).
The sample size of the population which is considered for a research depends on the nature of the research which is being conducted. The sample size which is used in qualitative analysis is not very large but the same is important for the purpose of collecting information for the research. The qualitative analysis considers small sample size for the purpose of a research. Qualitative research considers sampling techniques which is not much and often utilizes data which is collected from focused groups. There are three major types of sampling which is used in qualitative research which are purposeful sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling. The overall size of sample which is considered in case of qualitative research is limited due to data redundancy or even data saturation. The sample size in case of quantitative analysis, consider a group of people for which information are collected for using the same data in statistical analysis. As suggested by Tesch (2013), quantitative research calls for statistical analysis of sample size that is a priori to make certain that there is adequate power to substantiate that the result can certainly be accredited to the intervention. In essence, in case of qualitative research, nevertheless, size of sample is not by and large predetermined. Essentially, the total number of participants depends upon the total number required to update entirely all significant elements of the research phenomenon being considered. Particularly, the sample size can be considered to be sufficient at the time when added interviews or else focus groups do not lead to identification of novel notions that is necessarily an end point known as data saturation.
In case of Qualitative analysis, the data which is collected can be analyzed by following deductive approach and inductive approach. This sort of analysis in a research is considered to be time consuming and thereby needs to be conducted in an effective and efficient manner. The pattern which can be determined in case of qualitative analysis can be done with the help of normality tests which are done on histograms and other graphical presentations as well. In case of quantitative analysis, the pattern can be determined with the help of using statistical tools which can be applied such as Skewness and Kurtosis. This can be used for effectively determine the effectiveness of the data collected which are to be analyzed.
In case of Quantitative Analysis, the analysis can be conducted by following the statistical techniques such as regression analysis and measure of standards deviations (Galeet al. 2013). In addition to this, quantitative analysis can also be conducted by using various tools which are available such as SPSS. This tool can be used for effective analysis of the quantitative data of the business. As mentioned by Tesch (2013), qualitative data analysis is necessarily non-statistical, and the methodological approach of the study is mainly directed by concrete material. Essentially, qualitative analysis engages a continual interaction between theme and analysis. However, in evaluating qualitative data, it is important to understand patterns namely alterations over time or else probable causal links existing between different variables. On the other hand in case of quantitative research, the chief approach to particularly data is statistical and occurs in the structure of different tabulations. In this case, findings are typically descriptive in character even though conclusive within the numerical structure.
The research aims to deliver the evidence of the existence of the audit expectation gap in Nigeria by investigating the insight of the selected stakeholders. It further aims to investigate the perception of the respondents and the existing gaps in Nigeria. In addition to this, the study also aims to examine the perceptions of the respondent group and the existing duties along with the responsibility of the auditors(Ihendinihu& Robert2014).
The study has used different respondents as per the literature review to address the different types of the scope of the study. To ensure maximum coverage of the literature review of the topic the opinion of the respondents such as auditors, judges and lawyers, shareholders and investors are used for the study. Moreover, the responses are seen to be followed with the inclusion of different types of the respondents are taken from the chartered accountants, investment analysts, financial directors, bankers and financial journalists(Masoud2017).
The selection of the participants in my opinion are seen to be appropriate in nature due to the fact that the selection of the participants such as the chartered accountants, investment analysts, financial directors, bankers and financial journalists will be appropriate for having a good understanding of the investigating the existent of the reliance of the of the audit reports which are seen to be considered as per the various types of the extent of investment decision (Kassem& Higson2016). Moreover, auditors, judges and lawyers, shareholders and investors are depicted to be necessary for the investigation of the various types of the facts selected for the research study is seen to be based on consideration the perception of the existence of the audit expectation gap in Nigeria (Onulaka2015).
The study the segregated the respondent group into various types categories which are seen to be based on the external auditors, stock brokers, investors, private accountants and management. Based on the on-response percentage in my opinion the response rates of the external auditors, investors, private accountants are adequate to answer the various types of the research aims and objectives. However, the lower response percentage rate of 55% from the management participants are not acceptable in nature in my opinion therefore they cannot be taken into consideration for research study. Despite of this, the overall response rate of 88% can assumed to be reliable in nature to address the research aims of the study(Academicjournals.org. 2018).
The important form of the limiting factor for the study is seen with the consideration of the study from the Lagos. However, there is no research evidence which is based on the Nigeria. The overall findings of the research also suggest that there needs to be appropriate needs for maintaining the larger group of respondents for ensuring the reliability of the study. The study has not taken any initiative to address the contribution of the demographic factors such sex, working experience and age on the perception of the audit expectation gap among the various sample groups.
The agency theory is considered as the relationship among the principals and its agents in business. The important nature of the assumptions of the agency there is stated with the relationship which exist in the varied aversion of the risk levels and unaligned goals. The most evident idea of the agency theory is seen with the situation which may take place as the principal is not aware of the actions of the agent and this is prohibited by the resources from acquiring such an information. In this theory, there is also an assumption which is depicted with the principals hiring the agents to perform a service on the its behalf. As the contract decisions are seen to be made alongside the third parties the agency problem may arise. Some of the other assumptions of the agency theory has been stated with the pragmatic contribution to the social sciences and incorporation of the ideas which are associated to the human interactions in the social life. This includes the mental structures of the human agents. The assumption and the various types of the implication of the agency theory has been seen to be based on the consideration of the various type of the factors which are associated to the question whether the computational machines possess the human like intelligence.
The agency theory is depicted to handle number of situations where one party is seen to act on behalf of other. In terms of the determination of the executive compensation it has been seen that the major portion of increase is due to the “stocks, options and bonuses”. In several instances it has been seen that the executive compensation is based on various type the factors which are related to the “Short-term incentive plans (STIPs) – a variable cash bonus”. The company may decide to reward an employee with the “Golden Parachute” packages in which the employees receive lucrative benefits which are inclusive in the executive compensation.
There are several papers in finance, economics, management and accounting which has been able to confirm that the principle of the agent model has not reached to any consensus. However, few research studies have been able to show that the model is consistent with the measure of the theory-based estimation and measure of compensation. These natures of studies have shown that executive compensation confirms the principal agent theory although each scenario and variables need to be modelled carefully, estimated and identified (Pages.wustl.edu2018).
The criticism of the agency theory is seen to be based on the distinctive and controversial nature of the thesis. To understand the model, the main drawback is inferred with non-availability of the immediate and remote causation. Hence, if an event is seen immediate cause of event then there is no other thing which may change that that event. This assumption is depicted to be unrealistic in nature. Therefore, the consideration of the assumption of turning machine a step further is implied with the questions whether the computational machines are able to significantly able to contribute to the various facets of the information relied on the application of the human like intelligence. The remote causation will be always act as a hurdle to address the different types of the constraints for the controversial nature of the thesis.
Secondly, in case of human action there may be some event which is seen to be depicted with the case of the agency problem and the solution to the same is seen to be based on following up of the events which are depicted to be leading to the changes of any action (Jackson2016). In case the assumption of the social science is not able to draw the central ideas for the human like interaction there may be several instances of the problems during the computation process. The implications of the human like theories are further seen to be considered with following up of the various types of the evets which may be required by the management in the future.
The alternative to the agency theory is seen with the theoretical perspectives of organizational and behavior sciences for describing the situations with loyalty, honesty and trust. These behaviors are possible to develop the cooperative instead of the contentious relationships. The intrinsic incentives are also depicted with the alternative mechanism of the control on the behavior of the agents, while the extrinsic incentives prescribed by the traditional agency theory is able to make the suggestions on the personal satisfaction, identification with the organizational objects and the social obligations which are implicit in nature.
Some of the various types of the alternatives to the agency theory needs to stated with the use of the Feaver’s Agency Theory. Feaver is able to make a clear assumption of the beginning of the different types of the aspects which relates to the establishing and the maintaining of the civilian control as per the use of the various types of the theories which needs to be stated as per wide applicability of theory based on the principal and agent’s theory. The goal of the theory suggests to address the problems particularly between the actors in the position of the superiority or authority (principals) and subordinates (agents) (ACCORD 2018).
Fairness consideration in determination of the executive compensation is depicted with the decision of the various types of the factors of which are conducive in determining the years of the experience and level of education. Depending on the nature of the industry one may have vastly different wages for the same set of skills. Some of the factors for the fairness consideration are seen to be determines with the location, skills set, supply and demand (Cuevas-Rodríguez, Gomez-Mejia & Wiseman2014). The essential element in the executive compensation has been considered with the location factor as well, as the compensation rates fluctuate depending on the cost of living.
The regulators of the agency theory impact on the role of the audit. In this effect, the regulators are able to act as per the principals for ensuring the interest which are appropriately paid to attention along with the regulatory principal. For instance, in situation where there are regulators of the company boards this may be ensuring the interest of the regulatory principal. The shareholders of a company are seen to be having the overall market confidence and the audited financial statements as it is having a direct relation with the value of the company (Bosse and Phillips 2016). The demand for internal auditing based on the agency theory is also able to predict and explain the performance of the external auditors (Emeraldinsight.com2018).
As per the requirement of the question which is provided, a research is to be conducted showing the usefulness of expensive clothes in case of an interview. In other words, the research will be showing whether expensive clothes have any impact on the selection process for the job and also on the pay scale which the employee is supposed to receive from the job. As per the findings of this research, its is proved that expensive clothes have a positive impact on the selection process and also leads to selection of the employee for that particular post.
The findings of the research showed that in an interview session, an individual who came dressed up in expensive brand was preferred for the interview and was also selected. As per the research which is conducted in the case study shows that the sample size of the population which is considered for this research is of 150 people as specified in the research (NewsComAu. 2015). As per the theory of Conspicuous Consumption, individual tend to indulge in luxury products in order to show off their superior position (Veblen 2017). In this case, the theory of conspicuous consumption applies to this research. In case of interview which is shown in the research shows that a person can use expensive dressing sense as a strategy for getting selected in a job and even get a higher pay once selected in the job process. The reason which can be established for such a behavior is firstly due to the effect of conspicuous consumption and also the clothes represents the background from which the employees come from and also shows the presentability and dedication of the person for getting that particular job (Kapeller and Schütz 2015). The role of expensive clothes in the mind of an interviewer reflects the status, professional behavior and presentability of the candidate. Therefore, the research appropriately shows that expensive clothes has an impact on the overall interview process as well as on the potential payroll of the client.
The data which is collected for the research is from university which has a sample size of 150 candidates and the research process considers the job profile for women. The method through which the research was carried out was a narrow approach and a wider scope could have been adopted. The researcher could have collected more of a qualitative data and also widen the sample size of the population which is considered in this research. Moreover, from the article which is to be assessed does not clearly state the analysis which was undertaken by the researcher and the same does not mention which method did the rely upon more for analysis between qualitative and quantitative analysis. Moreover, it would also be useful if the researcher could have applied statistical analysis of the quantitative data obtained. The researcher could have analyzed the data with regression analysis and also central tendency analysis. Therefore, the findings of the research cannot be relied upon as if the sample size and analysis are increased, it is very much likely that different results might appear which is not revealed in the research provided in the assessment. The researcher could further widen the scope of the research.
The participants of the researcher were aware of the research question and the objectives of the research as shown in the article. In addition to this, the data was collected with the help of a survey which was conducted by university students and only female candidates were considered for the interview process. A handful of the candidates followed the criteria of wearing expensive clothes which were branded and the research shows appropriately that candidates who wore expensive clothes had a high probability of selection and also there is a positive chance that the candidate will be receiving higher salary (Kaus 2013). The participants which are considered for this research are appropriate as the same are college students and therefore have high probability of getting recruited in good companies and overall presentations of such candidates are considered while selecting the appropriate employees for a particular business. The researcher could have applied quantitative analysis as well in order to support the findings of the research.
Reference
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Cuevas-Rodríguez, G., Gomez-Mejia, L. & Wiseman, R. (2014). Has Agency Theory Run its Course?: Making the Theory more Flexible to Inform the Management of Reward Systems. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 20(6), pp.526-546.
Emeraldinsight.com. (2018). EmeraldInsight. [online] Available at: https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/02686909410071133?fullSc=1&journalCode=maj [Accessed 13 Jul. 2018].
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