Question:
Discuss about the Concepts of Self-Efficacy and Self-Handicapping.
According to Gelfand, Chiu, and Hong, the majority of American college students tend to provide self-descriptions based on personality traits. In contrast to that, Japanese college students are more inclined towards describing themselves in terms of group membership and social roles. In a study conducted in the late 20th century, around 58% American students considered personality traits to be amongst the top-five self-descriptors whereas only 18.6% Japanese college students chose the personal self as the parameter for self-description.
This contrasting behavior is largely due to the society both American and Japanese college students live in.
Many authors have defined self-handicapping in their own ways. However, the term generally means the attitude of individuals towards the certainty of the outcomes of their tasks. It refers to the instantiation of failures by individuals who are uncertain about the results of their ability in any task.
Higgins, Snyder and Berglas, have illustrated it with an example of a drunkard man who lives a lavish life. He externalizes his failure of being a socially active person to his lavish upbringing, having no need to carry out responsibilities.
The aim of self-handicapping, especially amongst students is to protect their self-esteem by externalizing the reason for their failure (Akça 288).
The dialectic involves three elements, the thesis, the antithesis and the synthesis. Thesis is the generation of an idea or a concept, antithesis is the contradicting argument opposing the thesis and synthesis is the understanding of thesis and antithesis. It can be demonstrated with an example where students in a class are asked to debate on the importance of ‘nature’ that is biological characteristics and ’nurture’ that is upbringing (Smith and Korydon). While debating on both issues, students reach a point where they discover that both nature and nurture influence human psychology.
The ‘nature’ is the thesis and ‘nurture’ is the antithesis. When these two extremes are coalesced, it forms the dialectical synthesis of nature and nurture.
J.A. Gray was the first to devise the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) in the year 1970 where he talked about the three neurological systems that emphasize personal differences in individuality and psychology.
First is the behavioral approach system (BAS) where behaviors anticipated to seek rewards are motivated. Activation of this system results in the desiring for exhilaration, demonstration of extraordinary perseverance and elation when rewarded.
Second is the fight-flight system (FFS) where behaviors expected to avoid fear, panic and anxiety are motivated.
Third and final one is the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) that involves resolution of conflicts between challenging goals.
There are many differences between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. However, the one basic difference may be outlined here.
When a person copes with a certain situation causing stress through engagement in or active planning to overcome the stress situation, he uses the problem-focused coping strategy. Taking help from mentors, managing time to tackle situations are included in problem-focused coping.
On the other hand, emotion-focused coping involves a person’s engagement in activities like meditation to cope with a stressful situation. Other ways of emotion-focused coping also includes distraction, eating comfort foods, drinking alcohol and so on.
Evolutionary psychologists believe that the basic difference between men and women arouse from their different reproductive status and abilities. Women, they say, possess traits that allow them to protect their offspring because they are responsible for its birth. According to the theorists, women in three past were exceedingly good in perceiving and hence evolved traits softer to that of men. On the other hand, men are less interested in reproduction are less selective about their mates. In addition, they were exceptional hunters with their superior throwing skills and thus were considered physically superior to women.
Self-efficacy, in simple terms, is the belief of a person that he or she can influence a situation or make a difference. Albert Bandura related self-efficacy to motivation, which is a psychological activity. When one feels motivated that his or her actions can change the outcome of a situation, he or she is said to be self-efficacious.
Self-efficacy has inherent connection with the self-determination theory. Proposed by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, the theory encourages human motivation. The motivation that one’s choices and actions can influence the results of a particular situation is the basic principle that underlies this theory (Deci and Ryan 95).
According to the hopelessness theory of depression, an individual who attributes any negative situation as his or her own fault is at a bigger risk of being depressed. To elaborate it further, those who point a pessimistic event to inner, constant, and inclusive causes were at bigger probability of developing depression. A person who had a heated argument with an acquaintance attributes it to his own weaknesses such as poor communication skills (inner) that is not likely to change (constant) and that is more likely to affect future communications with others as well (inclusive), is an example of this theory.
One has to focus on the three vital psychological needs, as per the self-determination theory- autonomy, competence and relatedness.
In order to achieve desired results in studies, one has to take control of his or her own behavior. To give an example, while studying in-group, one can develop the skills to motivate other peers that the specific subject is fruitful and interesting.
Secondly, having the belief that one has the capability to direct the result of an activity can largely help in developing good study habits.
Lastly, connecting with peers and exchanging ideas would greatly benefit the outcomes of the activity, group study in this case.
Yes, it is better to have an internal locus of control than possessing an external locus. Internal locus of control is the idea that an individual feels that he or she can control the events or situation. External locus refers to the idea that a person always blames external factors for any negative situation. Thus, it is better to have control over things and situations rather than blaming others.
However, internal locus can be damaging to one’s own well being as it has a may lead to depression.
It is an established fact that too much control over anything is negative. There must be a balance in both internal and external locus of control.
According to learned helplessness, repeated contact to uncontrollable and adverse situation leads to the belief that the situation is inescapable even though that might not be the case. This leads to a deteriorated mental health that is depression (Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov).
Apart from the biological differences, men and women have visible psychological differences that evolved with time and as per situation.
It is thus imperative to state that although, the perception of men and the society overall towards women has changed, still there are areas where women must be given a chance to display their skills and be acknowledged equally. One area where the change can be brought is the difference in wage of both. Men are paid higher for the same work as done by women. This must be changed.
Challenges –The primary challenge faced by same-sex couples is the unacceptable attitude of the society that includes family and peers as well (Bigner and Wetchler). Another challenge is the openness of couples in same-sex relationships. It may happen that one couple might openly accept their relationship status and preferences whereas the other might be reluctant to do so. This leads to internal disturbances that are unlike heterosexual couples.
Uniqueness – Results of numerous studies on same-sex relationships have shown that these relationships have certain unique aspects that heterosexual couples can learn. It has been found that same-sex couples are more affectionate and humorous when it comes to solving an argument (Gottman 132). The power of control amongst gay and lesbian couples is more balanced than that of heterosexuals.
References:
Akça, Figen. “An investigation into the self-handicapping behaviors of undergraduates in terms of academic procrastination, the locus of control and academic success.” Journal of Education and Learning 1.2 (2012): 288.
Bigner, Jerry, and Joseph L. Wetchler. Relationship therapy with same-sex couples. Routledge, 2014.
Deci, Edward L., and Richard M. Ryan. “Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory.” The Oxford handbook of human motivation (2012): 85-107.
Gelfand, Michele J., Chi-yue Chiu, and Ying-yi Hong, eds. Handbook of advances in culture and psychology. Vol. 5. Oxford University Press, 2015.
Gottman, John Mordechai. “Gottman couple therapy.” Clinical handbook of couple therapy (2015): 129-157.
Higgins, Raymond L., Charles Richard Snyder, and Steven Berglas. Self-handicapping: The paradox that isn’t. Springer Science & Business Media, 2013.
Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2017, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4689589/
Smith, Korydon, ed. Introducing architectural theory: debating a discipline. Routledge, 2013.
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