The Ethernet connection is based on the media access methods to relay and convey data from sender to receiver. The Ethernet has several capabilities which include the transmission of data frames and receiving them, decoding of the data frames and confirming the validity of the address before conveying them to preceding (Upper) layers of the IOS model. In addition, it also detects errors on the network or within the frames (Geier et al.,2015).
Data moves down through the layer on the sender computer through the Ethernet cables to the receiver. The application support layer enhances permits communication by the receiver and the unrelated software systems. The transport layer ensures the transmission is appropriate while the network layer is concerned with moving data across the devices. Each layer in the sender receives information from the layer above it, adds its own information and passes the whole package to the layer below it. When it reaches the physical layer, it is transformed into an electromagnetic signal and convey through the physical link.
For the data to travel from one layer to the other, each layer must communicate to its peer on the other end, during this peer-to-peer process the protocols of the two layers communicate to one another; the source must communicate to its peer in the next layer, the destination layer. The layers exchange information known as Protocol Data Communication (PDU). The dependency function of each layer is aided by the service layer below it. To make the service a success, the lower layer uses encapsulation to put the PDU from the upper layer to its data field. It then adds the necessary headers the layers need to perform its function. As the data move, additional headers are added. They are grouped into segments.
The layers use their own layer protocols to communicate with their peer layer in the other end. Each layer’s protocol communicates to one another using protocol data units (PDUs), between peer layers. The peer-layer protocol communication is attained by using the function provision of the layers beneath it. The transport layer will insure that data is kept segmented from one another. The Transport Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol commonly known as by its abbreviations (TCP/IP) has four layers namely Application, Transport, Internet and Network Access Layer which perform different functions to in aiding the data communication processes.
In encapsulation, PDUs are created by each protocol which entails the data and the header that is to be transmitted. These data become the Service Data Unit (SDU) of the layer below it. From the diagram above, the uppermost layer,7, PDU has a layer 7 header and application data. When it is conveyed to 6 it becomes 6 SDU. The 6 layer attachés the data at the beginning of L6H to give rise to layer 6 PDU which is later on passed to layer number 5. The encapsulation process continues up to layer number 2 which initiate layer 2PDU, it transformed into bits and forwarded to layer number 1
The receiver will synchronize with the digital signals until it’s done and receives the whole frame. Once complete, it will pass it to the Data link layer which is above it. The data link will check if there is an error in the data through the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). The data link layer will remove any information that was initially put any the remote system’s data link layer thus moving to Network layer to form packets. The IP address is checked in the Network layer, then strips off from packets and passes the rest to the Transport layer to form segments.
The transport layer processes the segment and rebuilds the stream. Thus the process of encapsulation is reversed from the Layer 2, 2PDU back to layer 6.
Switches use an application specific integrated circuit to build and maintain MAC address tables. When the circuit is powered on, the switch has no any destination address on it. When the device transmits data for the first time, the switch will store the destination MAC address. It will broadcast the frames to all the port in the switch apart from that of the switch. When the switch receives frames it compares the MAC address with that in its table in order to determine the destination of the address. If the MAC address is not found in the table, the switch will opt to flood the frame hence allowing forwarding of the frame.
When host F on LAN 2 sends the frame to host A on LAN 1, Hub 2 will receive the frame at the interface of the hub where it connects to F. It’s obvious it will not find the MAC address of A in LAN1 in its filter table. It will flood the frame to all the ports apart from that of the source thus the same copy of the frames will be received in both switch 1 and switch 2 which in turn will do the same: i.e. flooding the frame to all its port apart from that of the source in search of the MAC address of A. This will result to increase in copies of the frame in the network since the frames will keep circulating in the network. Eventually, the network will completely break down as a result of unnecessary broadcast storm chewing the network bandwidth.
At the sender node, Alice encapsulates the packets for transmission on the ongoing link. At the intermediate node, the frame is decapsulated and forwarded to the network layer which then determines the routing. The link type involves in this transmission include the point-to-point between two devices dedicated link and broadcast. Data Link Control (DLC) and Media Access Control (MAC) are also used as sublayers. The network layer address stores the IP address of the device which is unique across all nodes in all interconnected networks and is the source destination. The link address locally identifies the device and stores address of the destination source.
Alice node has the IP datagram to Bob’s node, though in moving the frame the link address is used to move to the next address. The Address Resolution Protocol is used to deduce if the destination is local or remote. Once the destination of Bob has been identified as remote, the ARP is used to determine the default gateway which is the router which in turn is responsible in forwarding to Bob’s node via data link layer. Router R1 and Router R2 communicate via point to point connection. Alice IP (ARP Alice)requests for Bob’s MAC address, the ARP at Alice creates an ARP packet an forward it to the link of Alice. Data link of Alice makes a frame, which is basically the packets in the data link, as shown in the frame link 1 and broadcasts the frame to frame in link 2. In the frame link 3, ARP at Bob makes packet reply ARP sends it data link layer including the Bob’s MAC address. Bob’s data link checks the type fields which denote ARP protocol and decapsulates the frame.
Point-To-Point-Protocol is considered very secure in respect to WAN. It has the capabilities of being hidden from view; it has a way to encapsulate datagram multiprotocol datagrams.
The Link Control Protocol (LCP) is a core fundamental protocol that aid in the Point-to-point communication in a network. It is used to create and establish logical links between the two points; the source and the destination of the data. It is also responsible in Point-to-Point links for complete operations for suit protocols inside the data-link layer of the OSI. It uses a set of frames to control, manage and terminate the point-to-point links. It establishes and configures the verification peer identification through the link configuration. It maintains the link by estimating packets size and eliminates any configuration error. It also terminates the connection of the link when the available resources exceed the requirement.
The Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) is used for access granting of devices connected in point-to-point network. It is an authentication protocol that is primarily used in validating the users by supporting three types of authentications of varying security levels. PAP makes this complete by using network server to request password from the clients’ device and share the retrieved password to the relevant server without encrypting the password. It’s often considered as least secure.
The Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is used in authenticating network hosts to point-to-point networks. It provides a secure connection since it provides protection against playback attacks through a variable change value. In requests passwords in network sever access which sends password a unique message to the clients device, the client device will then encrypt the message and send it back to the access server, the authentic is successful when the user’s response match.
The Network Control Program (NCP) is used to request for extra configurations and facilities for the network in point-to-point networks. It makes possible for the devices connected in point-to-point network to communicate, access remote devices and share/transmit files between the devices. It provides the middle layer which aid computer network protocol suit in running host computers. It uses the simplex protocol which utilizes the two ports (the UDP and TCP port numbers) to establish two connections of the point-to-point devices, for two way communication.
The Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP) is used establishing, configuring and managing Internet Protocols (IP) in devices connected in point-to-point network. It configures the IP address by enabling and disabling the modules of the internet protocol on both ends of the point-to-point network. The IPCP packets are transmitted when the PPP reaches the network layer protocol phase. Each device in the point to point network sends its own configuration requests since the direction of PPP connection and Transport Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) option are not dependable to each other’s (Sarkar et al.,2016).
Question 5(1).
Mobile telephony entails communication phone services which allow one to be mobile rather than fixed in one position. Cellar phones connect to base transceiver stations. Due to the effect of some unavoidable negative factors such as the attenuation, there is need to modulate digital signals before transmitting them. This is because the frequency of the baseband e.g. that of your voice is so weak that it cannot withstand the extent of transmission (i.e. distance to cover), hence the heightening of the frequency to the order of MHz disguised in the bosom of the carrier until it gets to its destination then demodulated. When transmission distance increases the signal tends to lose, so carrier signal is added along with the message signal to strengthen the original message signal.
A bandpass is a channel whose resultant bandwidth does not start form 0. The data is transmitted in form of amplitude modulated signals; the stream of data is modulated while switching the amplitude and frequency in together with the incoming data (Al-Fuqaha et al., 2015). The bandpass signals are analyzed by equivalent envelope representation. The signal received is later on filtered with a bandwidth filter of equal bandwidth signal which entails converting narrowband noise from the white noise. The received signal complexity representation will be observed by the receiver for some time and make appropriate equivalently for binary data. At the receiver, the data is then reconverted to its initial state i.e. from analog to digital.
We have a total of 8 collisions:
A switch cause one collision per pair devices so we will have collisions between pc-5 and switch 1, p-6 and switch 3, switch 1 and switch 2, switch 2 and switch 3, switch 2 and router thus making a total of 5 collisions based on the switch.
Devices that are connected to a hub have one resultant collision, thus in our diagram, we will have collision one collision as a result of pc-1, pc-2, hub 4, hub 5 and hub 3. The second collision involving a hub is between hub 2 and pc-3 while the last collision involving a hub is between pc-4 and hub 1.
Bridge forward and filters incoming frames, it determines the destination address of the frame. It has the capability of storing Ethernet frames in memory thus preventing collisions from happening. Thus, no collision will be around the bridge.
References
Al-Fuqaha, A., Guizani, M., Mohammadi, M., Aledhari, M., & Ayyash, M. (2015). Internet of things: A survey on enabling technologies, protocols, and applications. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 17(4), 2347-2376.
Geier, J. (2015). Designing and Deploying 802.11 Wireless Networks: A Practical Guide to Implementing 802.11 n and 802.11 ac Wireless Networks For Enterprise-Based Applications. Cisco Press.
Sarkar, S. K., Basavaraju, T. G., & Puttamadappa, C. (2016). Ad hoc mobile wireless networks:principles, protocols, and applications. CRC Press.
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