Viticulture came from the Latin word for vine. Viticulture can be described as the study, production and science of grapes and including the series of the events that occur in the vineyard. Also, when the grapes are utilized for the purpose of winemaking, then it is known as viniculture. Viniculture is also a branch of science on horticulture. The vineyard (Vitis vinifera) or the common grape exhibits high levels of adaptability and thus it is seen in the wide array of areas of Western Europe and stretching to the Persian shores that are located beside the Caspian Sea. These grape vines sometimes will show the mutant characteristics in order to adapt to the new environment upon introduction (Anderson et al., 2012). Due to the highly adaptable nature of the grape vines, it is found in each and every region and continent except Antarctica. A typical viticulturist can be seen in to be having the duties of vine pruning during the months of winter, taking decisions regarding the right time to harvest, monitoring the fruit characteristics and fruit development, canopy management, irrigation, fertilizing, controlling diseases and pests and as well as monitoring. A majority of the wine producing regions are found to be located within the temperate latitudes of 300 to 500 in both the hemispheres (Hannah et al. 2013).
It is important to note that the mean annual temperature between this latitude is 100 and 200 Celsius. While the presence of both mountain ranges and the water bodies have a positive effect on the climate as well as the vines. The nearby rivers and the lakes serve to protect the drastic temperature drops and changes. The drop in temperature during the night time is compensated by the release of the heat energy stored in the water bodies and this effect warms the vines (El Khoury et al. 2016). This particular study will be based on the viticulture and how the major climate change that includes the extreme events, rainfall and temperature impacts viticulture. The study will also take into account the various trigger points like the social aspects, institutional constraints or policies and financial pressure.
Italy- Viticulture has its deep connections to the winemaking and for this reason, the history of wine is more than 4000 years old. The climate played a major role in promoting viticulture and due to this Italy is considered one of the most diverse winemaking countries in the world. When the Greek arrived in Italy, wine used to be an integral part of the Italians. The cultivation of grapes was so easy that Italy was named as Oenotria which means the land of wines. When Catholicism began to rise, the importance of wine rose for the purpose of the sacrament. At that time, Italy started to refine the winemaking processes and this occurred throughout the middle ages and firmly cemented the reputation of Italy as an excellent winemaker. During the nineteenth century, wide areas of Northern Europe, as well as Italian vineyards, got infected with the vine louse phylloxera. This led to damaging Italy’s majority of the vineyards (Pomarici, 2015).
The vineyards were planted again and were designed with the maximum quality while neglecting the quality. Thus, this resulted in Italy becoming a global source of wine which was inexpensive. However, this condition changed when a series of laws were passed to control the quality of the wine and this initiated the modern era of winemaking. The Italian wine is more popular and varied in comparison to the past occurrences. In spite of the losses accrued during the infestation of phylloxera, hundreds of the different varieties of the vines were planted and it is remarkable that certain varieties are only grown in Italy. A wide range of sparkling wines, white and red wines are made including both the ultramodern and the traditional techniques and this is enjoyed by the consumers, collectors, critics throughout the world (Aversano et al. 2017).
Sicily- Sicily is geographically located which is endowed with the gentle sea breeze, sun and with calcareous soil. The Phoenicians were the first to bring the new cultivars from the East and this replaced the widespread grapevines. The Greeks later enhanced the techniques of the pressing and this led to the introduced the new cultivars called the Grecanico grapes. This improved the wine quality to a great extent and thus in the 5th century the Sicilian wine used to export from the Agrigento to the Carthage. During the Roman rule, there were about 21,600 hectares of the vineyards that were of the high quality (Nesto and Di Savino 2013). Later the conquerors of Arab did not prefer to interfere with the existing wine production even though drinking of wine was forbidden according to the Koran. Also, the winemaking process was enhanced with the invention of Alembic (the predecessor of the modern pot still). Also, it is important to note that the Arabs imported Zebib which is a cultivar from the Cape Zebib in Tunisia.
The long history of Sicily itself serves as an evidence of the high rate of wine produced in Italy which is about 700 million litres (Barbera, 2018). It is 15 percent of the entire wine produced in Italy. In the 19th century, the production of wine increased with the production of wines from the Marsala region and wines mixed form the other regions. Due to this, there was a high level of demand in the Northern region of Italy (Solosicily.com 2018). During the 1960’s the Sicilian viticulture is mainly famous due to the wine from the Marsala region. However, during the 1970’s white wines were produced in Sicily like the Colomba Platino, Feudo dei fiori, Nozze d’oro Tasca and Regaleali bianc. Whereas during the 1980’s an increase has been noticed in the production of the red wines that are matured by keeping them in wooden casks. In the year 2000, the red wine made from the regional grape variety called the Nero d’Avola became famous and popular (Wines of Sicily 2018).
Fig 1: Areawise organic viticulture in Italy [source: statista.com 2018]
Current status- the present condition states that the increase in temperature has led to the rise or increase in the rates of precipitation. This impacts the urban drainage system and thus affecting the urban environment in return. The total air temperature has been found to increase by 0.760 C when the comparisons are made from the year 1850-1899 and from 2001 to 2005. The temperature increase from the year 1865 to 2003 has increased by 10 C. It has been found that there is a significant difference between the regions and the seasons. The minimum temperature has increased has been found to increase in comparison to the maximum temperature. When the period 1961 to 2011 has been taken into consideration, a significant trend has been seen to be occurring during the summer days with the rise in heat waves, tropical nights. Also, the heat waves have been found to have increased at a rate of 7.5 days in every single decade (Climatechangepost.com 2018).
Fig 2: Average temperature and rainfall from 1850-2015 in Italy [source: Sdwebx.worldbank.org 2018]
When the total precipitation trend is considered, the accumulated precipitations has shown nor the univocal nor the pronounced trends in the Sicilian region. Studies have shown that there is a reduction in the trends of precipitation. There is a decrease in precipitation when the period between 1951 and 1996 was considered. In the summer season, there is a significant decrease in the rainfall during the summer season. It has been found that the precipitation has increased in winter and it is less in winter. The northern parts of the Mediterranean will be wetter and the southern parts will be drier, thus amplifying the water scarcity and rainfall differences. The summer climate is seen to be experiencing a more pronounced form of a heat wave and droughts. The number of dry days has increased due to climate change whereas the number of the wet days have remained unchanged. Thus, this means that the when there will be rain, it will be more intense and strong (Forestieri et al., 2018).
Fig 3: Orography of Sicily [Source: Forestieri et al., 2018]
According to Liuzzo et al. (2014), The effect of climate change has a negative effect on both the water resources and the hydrological processes. Streamflow, water quality and water availability has been found to be very sensitive with respect to the changes in the precipitation and temperature and this affects the water planning and water management. For the purpose of assessing the effect of climate change on the groundwater and surface water over the Southern parts of Italy, a model called TOPDM was used by the authors to simulate the hydrological processes that are occurring in the Belice river basin. This river basin is located in Sicily and this feeds and an artificial lake. The data from the tests carried out showed that the evapotranspiration and runoff reflect the variations in both the temperature and precipitation.
A decrease in the groundwater and the surface water resources have been found to occur due to the negative trend in precipitation. The effect has been seen to follow a similar trend of intensification when there was an increase in evapotranspiration as well. The probable consequences of the changes occurring in the water supply system were analysed through the process of simple balance evaluation. This method was employed to evaluate a lake water reservoir for the assessment of the possible impacts on the management of the resources. The results of the analysis indicated that a high level of water resources stress. In this scenario, a scarcity of water resources management is an important issue.
Fig 4: TOPDM model [source: Liuzzo et al. 2014]
Fig 5: Mean annual daily evapotranspiration for the year 2050, 2100 with respect to the baseline [source: Liuzzo et al. 2014]
Prediction- the recent climate prediction has revealed that the Mediterranean ecosystem have a will experience radical changes in the future due to the increasing effects of global warming with respect to a greenhouse effect. Future rainfall prediction has revealed that there is a need for the flood risk management for several Sicilian catchments. In the future, an increase in the amount of rainfall in the small basins will lead to an immediate overflow of the basins. This thus has a negative impact like connected flood risk and flood phenomenon (Arnone et al. 2013). There are other effects like the 20 percent of the Alpine glaciers melted between the year 1980 and 2000. Considering this same speed, by the year 2020, all the glaciers will be gone. When the glaciers will recede, the melted water will lead to the rise in sea level. It is also important to note that the loss of the glaciers will have a cascading effect on the global rise in temperature. Earth’s temperature will further rise when the large tracts of snow will be unable to reflect back the sun’s rays back into space. According to the estimation of Italy’s Ministry for Environment, Land and Sea, it has been predicted that the snow cover in the Alps will be melting faster (Thelocal.it 2018).
The rise in the global temperature will cause higher rates of evaporation, change in the movement of air and the will affect the quantity of water vapour that air can hold. Such a major change in temperature will lead to disrupting weather conditions causing unpredictable events like droughts, storms and violent weather conditions. In the year 2013, a study was conducted by Conservation International and the study revealed that if the current trends in the global rise in temperature continue then the famous wines of Italy will soon vanish. This study emphasized that the majority of the grapevine areas will be lost by 2050. Thus, this will lead to higher production costs of wines as the grapevine farmers will be employing special irrigation measures (van Leeuwen and Darriet 2016).
Temperature- among all the environmental factors, temperature alone plays a major role in the in viticulture because the prevailing temperature during the winter dormancy period affects the budding of the grape vines and it continues in the following seasons. If the high temperatures exist for a longer period, then it leads to a negative impact on the grape as well as the quality of the wine. It is important to note that the high temperature affects the grape development and the other components like acid through the respiration, accumulation of sugar, aroma, and colour. During the springtime the annual growth cycles of grapevine initiate with the bud breaks which is again initiated by the 10 degree Celsius of daytime temperature (Fraga et al. 2012). Thus, climate change brings forth the unpredictable climate change and might bring unpredictable occurrences of frost even outside the winter season.
The periods of frost, thus affect the grape quality and causes lower yields. In order to maintain the wine quality, the presence of organic acids is a must. The phenolic compounds like the tannins, anthocyanins imparts wine its anti-oxidant capacity, astringency, bitterness and colour (Santos et al. 2012). Studies have shown that grapevines that persistently exposed to temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius have low concentrations of anthocyanins. Whereas temperatures of more than 35 degrees Celsius will prevent the production of anthocyanin and at the same time the high temperature will also degrade the same. Tannins along with the anthocyanins impart a taste of astringency and this imparts a colour to the aged red wine. Also, the presence of the phenolic compounds gets affected by the rise in temperature and this affects the grape quality (Hannah et al. 2013).
Fig 6: Minimum temperatures below -200 C recorded in Bucharest-Baneasa in the year 1991-2015 and compared with 1961-2015.
Rainfall- Rainfall patterns are affected both seasonally and annually due to the climate changes. Thus, changes in the precipitation are observed with respect to both the frequency and the volume of rainfall. It has been found that the lack of rainfall during the vital periods results in the drought conditions. Thus, resulting in an additional stress on the grapevines. Rainfall is thus considered to be critical during the initiation of the growing season and the bud burst. Whereas, a persistently dry period is required during the flowering period and the ripening period and also during the times of harvest. Increased amounts of water stress thus have both the negative as well as the positive impacts on the viticulture (Lereboullet et al. 2014).
Humidity- Humidity is often considered as the vital for the several diseases that are caused by the mildew and mould. It is important to note that the right amount of humidity is essential in order to cause natural wonders in relation to grape growing which is called Botrytis cinerea. Botrytis cinerea or the noble rot assists in producing sweet vines. However, it is important to note that the when Botrytis cinerea attacks the vineyard just before the veraison, then it is no longer considered noble because it causes grey rot instead. It has been seen that when there is an extended period of humidity and the sunshine is also sufficient then the grey rot disease is seen to be prominent. If the periods of humidity persist, then the grapes eventually spoil. Humidity also plays a major role in promoting the growth of the powdery mildew and the affected grapes become unusable and rotten. It has been found that the varietals that develop in the branches are especially prone to powdery mildew (Bonnardot, Carey and Cautenet 2017).
Fig 7: effect of Botrytis cinerea on the grapevine
Increased levels of carbon dioxide- The increased level of carbon dioxide leads to an increased effect of photosynthetic activity in the grape vines because increased amounts of photosynthesis are noticed due to the increased levels of carbon dioxide. This has been to result in an increase in the dry weight of the plant along with an increase in leaf area. With the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide, an increase in the partial stomatal closure is noticed and this leads to the increased leaf temperatures. Thus, the rise in the leaf temperature will lead alteration in the levels of an enzyme called RuBisCo along with the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen that affects the photosynthetic capabilities of plants. This phenomenon of alteration in the level of RuBisCo affects the photosynthetic capabilities of the grape vines. The elevated levels of carbon dioxide are also seen to decrease the stomatal density of certain grapevine varieties (Kilmister et al. 2016).
Fig 8: Increased levels of photosynthesis due to elevated levels of carbon dioxide
Extreme events- extreme minimum temperature can lead to the vines suffering from the losses of bids viability, trunk and even the canes. This as a whole affects the survivability of the grapevine. Intense solar radiation arising from the solar radiation can lead to sunburned berries and defoliation on the west side of the grapevine row. During the extreme drought conditions in the summer season, a higher accumulation of the sugar is noticed and a significant reduction in the acidity. Also, a decrease in the grape yield is also noticed. Following increased levels of heat waves and water deficit, the grape vines changed the orientation of the leaves in order to reduce the solar radiation. This is an adaptation with respect to solar radiation and conditions of water stress. Also other extreme weather conditions like winter frost, the grave vines are seen to experience a significant reduction in the production (Bucur and Dejeu 2016).
Fig 9: sunburned berries caused due to the solar radiation and high temperature when compared to the grape vines on the eastern side of the row [source: Bucur and Dejeu 2016]
The adaptations that need to be considered, takes into account the various incremental, systems and the transformational factors are as follows:
There are multiple points that act as a promoter in Italian viticulture. One of the big reason is that the industries lead the sustainable practices for the volunteers of the wineries and the vineyards. The external drivers like the compliance with the regulations, requirements for exports and compliance with the trade regulations along with the pressure from the large retailers. Other trigger points like the product quality, competitive advantage and the cost savings play a major influential role (Mariani and Vastola 2015). Many owners of the vineyards do not consider or plan to build a winery, but the financial pressure has forced the owners to construct a winery before the business gets ready. It is important to consider that the equipment is expensive, although the storage containers and the press can be used for shorter parts of a year (pawinegrape, 2018). Italian wine industry is one of the most flourishing industries in the world, and for this reason, wine production contributes a huge percentage to the country’s GDP. Thus, it is needless to say that viticulture plays a major role in the bringing the best out of the wine industries.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that viticulture and viniculture are the two closely related aspects of the grape cultivation and its final destination to the wineries. Viticulture has its deep connections to the winemaking and for this reason, the history of wine is more than 4000 years old. The climate played a major role in promoting viticulture and due to this Italy is considered one of the most diverse winemaking countries in the world. Sicily thus is geographically located at a much better region which endows itself with the gentle sea breeze, sun and with calcareous soil. However, the current change in climate has proved to be detrimental for the viticulture with impending issues like disease infestations, less precipitation, seasonal changes, and extreme weather conditions. Thus, in order to balance the climate changes, there is a need to adapt and integrate the various agricultural practices and the winemaking process that will effectively counter global temperature rise.
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