Concrete is manufactured by mixing aggregates like crushed stone, gravel and sand with a binding agent like cement, water and chemical agents. When water is added to cement, cement hydrate crystals are formed and the crystals lock the gravel and cement together. This interlocking provides the necessary strength for concrete and water provides for the chemical reactions and hydrates the cement. The concrete gains strength and hardens for at least another 5 years. (ACI committee 116, 1967). The composition of concrete could be varied to produce concrete that sets and weathers very well, appears different in color or flows quicker.
Manufacturing of reinforced concrete is fairly simple but in order to understand the procedure first we should know how concrete is manufactured as reinforced concrete is nothing else other than concrete with steel reinforcements. The first process in the manufacturing of concrete is the preparation of Portland cement which is processed by drying and then powdering alumina, silica and limestone into fine powder and mixing them together in definite proportions (Reynolds, et al, 2008). It is then preheated, calcined and burned at 2550º F in large rotary kiln to form clinker, which is then cooled and grinded in a rotating drum to form Gypsum which consists of tetra-calcium alumino-ferite, tricalcium aluminate, decalcium silicate and tricalcium silicate and this is called cement (McCormac and Brown, 2014).
This cement is then mixed with crushed stone, gravel, sand, water, fibers and admixtures so as to form a uniform blend. Fibers are added using hand laying, impregnating, premixing or direct spraying techniques with the help of a dispersing agent like silica fume. Now this concrete is transported to the work site using pumps, buckets, wheelbarrows or special trucks. The next step would be placing and compacting, but during the manufacturing of reinforced concrete this step is slightly modified by casting the wet concrete around reinforced steel bars. The concrete is uniformly placed inside the formwork using bull floats and magnesium floats. The surface of concrete is smoothened using trowels, float blades, edgers, brooms and polishers.
The final step is curing, where once the compacted concrete should be cured in order to make sure that the concrete does not dry quickly as the strength of concrete depends on the moisture level while it hardens. Concrete has good compressive strength but poor tensile strength and steel reinforcement helps to improve the tensile strength of concrete (Skalny and Mindess, 1989). Steel is preferred for reinforcement because the expansion and contraction of steel due to heat and cold is same as that of concrete (Neville and Brooks, 1987). The steel bars are held firmly inside concrete because they are made by twisting strands with ridges or nobbles so as to eliminate the risk of slippage inside the concrete.
Reinforced concrete is subjected to a lot of tests to evaluate its structural, fire and safety integrity. The structural integrity of concrete is evaluated based on the following test, slump test is used to find out the workability of concrete, a compressive strength test is performed to determine the compression strength of concrete, initial surface absorption, rapid chloride ion penetration, water absorption and water permeability tests are performed to find out the durability of concrete. Then there are tests for determining the density, compaction factor, air content, flow, vebe time, static and dynamic modulus of elasticity, flexural strength and tensile splitting strength of concrete. All tests are performed as per BS 1881. Some of the nondestructive tests used to evaluate concrete are as follows.
The advantages of using reinforced concrete in building construction are as follows.
The disadvantages of using reinforced concrete in building construction are as follows.
The process of manufacturing steelwork to form the structural frame by assembling and jointing individual steel components is known as fabrication. The entire steel structure is made from locally available standard sections, protective coatings and bolts. The effectiveness of steel construction depends on the efficiency of fabrication and erection. Structural engineer holds the responsibility of erection and fabrication of steel structures.
Structural steel fabrication can be executed on site or in shop. Fabrication completed in shops is specific and of assured quality, whereas fabrication carried out on site is comparatively inferior (Bowles, 1980). The procedure adopted for on-site fabrication is similar to that used in shop but the equipment used are less sophisticated and so is the talent of employees and hence the quality of finished product tends to be fairly inferior. The type of fabrication determines the significance and sequence of operation followed for fabricating structural steel. The sequence of procedures followed during structural steel fabrication is as follows (Brockenbrough and Frederick, 2011).
Structural Steel testing is carried out to ensure the quality of different process in steel structures (Duggal, 2000). Welding is verified using tests like radiographic examination, ultrasonic examination, penetration flaw detection test and magnetic particle flaw detection test. Surface defects such as inclusions and cracks are detected using Magnetic particle test, sub-surface flaws and thickness are detected using ultrasonic test.
The Bolts in Structural steel is tested for proper tightness and strength, holes are tested for proper diameter. Load test should be carried out to test any part of the defective steel structure. Galvanized steel’s strength is evaluated using stripping test. Fire protection coatings that should be applied on the surface of steel structures should comply with the fire precaution standards. The thickness of the spray, coatings, boards and way to install the coating should be tested as per the fire precaution schemes. Investigations should be carried out to check whether the protections codes and standards are followed or not.
The advantages of using Structural Steel in commercial buildings are as follows.
The disadvantages of structural steel can be listed as follows.
The blend of steel and concrete finds application in high rise business structures, production lines, and also in spans. These materials can be utilized as a part of blended structural frameworks, for instance concrete centers surrounded by steel tubes and in composite structures of concrete and steel. Both these materials have nearly same thermal expansion, perfect blend of qualities with steel effective in tension and concrete in compression, concrete likewise gives thermal protection and corrosion assurance to steel at raised temperatures and also limits lateral torsional buckling (Kim, et al, 2011).
In composite beams steel and concrete are interconnected using mechanical shear connectors. Watchful enumerating and development of precast concrete floor or deck guarantee sufficient control for the connectors. The utilization of precast deck units diminishes nearby development operations and evades wet exchanges. The units themselves are thrown on steel formwork in a shop to guarantee high caliber and little resilience.
The proficiency in structural execution will be most prominent in the event that it is conceivable to guarantee that the concrete slab and steel part act compositely consistently. For this reason, all heaps, including the dead weight of the structure, ought to be opposed by the composite segment. This necessity can be met by supporting the steel pillar until the point that the concrete has solidified. Such help is known as propping. The quantity of impermanent supports doesn’t require to be high; propping at the quarter span focuses and mid-span is by and large adequate (Levy, 2005). The props are left set up until the point that the concrete slab has created satisfactory resistance.
Diverse development strategies prompt distinctive stress states, force disseminations and avoidances under administration conditions. Be that as it may, composite beams stacked up to disappointment fall flat at a similar twisting minute regardless of whether propped or un propped development has been utilized. Their twisting resistance can be effectively ascertained by methods for rectangular stress squares.
In composite steel concrete structures, be that as it may, huge extra resistance and stiffness can be given basically by putting ceaseless reinforcing bars in the slab around the columns. Total cooperation must be guaranteed by methods for mechanical associations. The associations must be given at any rate at the section closes and where loads or forces are acting. They ought to be dispersed over the entire cross-area. Such connectors could be going studs, shear heads, vertical gusset plates, appropriate sections, or other structural means.
Concrete encased columns have favorable position that they meet imperviousness to fire necessities with no other insurance. Likewise, they can be effectively fortified by reinforcing bars in the concrete cover. On account of prefabricated encased columns, the structural steel segments are created in a workshop and incorporate association plates, welds and other vital connections. These steel columns would then be able to be transported to another workshop, where cementing happens. After curing the concrete encasement is conveyed to the development site.
The most vital component of such an in part encased segment is its inalienable high imperviousness to fire (Macdonald, 2001). The imperviousness to fire is because of the way that the concrete part keeps the internal steel parts structural steel and also reinforcing bars from warming up too quick. The concrete parts are thrown in a workshop or on location before erection. This method empowers quick development with prefabricated composite individuals. The concrete between the spines ought to be reinforced by longitudinal bars and stirrups, and ought to be appended to the web by welded bars, stud connectors, or bars through gaps.
Not-withstanding the upgraded imperviousness to crippling, fire and nearby buckling of steel is avoided and the resistance of steel bars against lateral torsional buckling is altogether expanded (Williams, 2011). These beams additionally have more noteworthy vertical shear and stiffness under twisting which brings about a diminishment of conclusive redirection.
Some of its advantages are listed here.
Some of the disadvantages are as follows.
Structural glass facades are utilized as a part of longer traversing applications with an aluminum extrusion as the primary spreading over component ends up plainly unimaginable. The structure is uncovered, and accordingly turns into a predominant component of the façade plan. Great consideration is commonly put upon the craftsmanship and enumeration of the supporting structure. A steady advancement towards a dematerialization of the facades have been observed recently and this resulted in the increased utilization of tension components in the structural framework, prompting the utilization of pure tension based frameworks like link nets (Button and Pye, 1993). Frameless glass frameworks, frequently called point-settled or point-supported frameworks, are regularly utilized for a similar reason. Framed board or stick sort frameworks using aluminum extrusions are additionally utilized viably in structural glass facades, yet they are integrated in plan with the structural frameworks that support them, and are considerably different than curtain divider frameworks. Transparency property has pushed glass to its prominent position as structural glass façade and is used widely as an architectural material (Behling and Behling, 1999).
Architectural glass is produced from a well-known form of glass known as soda-lime glass (Compagno, 1999). Various material properties of glass like resistance to high temperatures and corrosion, transparency and durability combined with tremendous production limitation and relative ease in the industry, make it an extraordinarily appropriate material for architectural applications. The glass utilized as a part of structural glass facades, vary significantly among projects. It is quite often strengthened to yield buoy glass process, subject to adjustment through some form of secondary processing including value in some way or the other (Rice & Dutton, 1995). Secondary processes incorporate various blends of warmth treating, covering, fritting and covering, like others. Level glass can likewise be bowed for an interesting architectural effect (Loughran, 2003).
Fabrication requirements vary as an element of structural and glass framework sort. Contingent on the product cost, specification and accessibility, glass may be imported, presenting strategic and planning issues. The issues and requirements are not trivial, as consumption, cost of work and quality are determined by the way in which they are managed. Uncovered steel structures require a phenomenal level of craftsmanship in their fabrication. Steps should be adopted to properly determine the requirements on the outline side and to ensure that these specifications are actually met on the manufacture side. Once more, a portion of the processes and materials used in structural glass facades, are not new by any methods and are unfamiliar to a significant part of the construction industry, affecting configuration, erection and fabrication processes (Fleming, 1999).
Advantages of utilizing glass as architectural facade are as follows
Disadvantages of utilizing glass as architectural façade are as follows
Partition walls are built to utilize more space to the existing situation and the proper procedure in which a partition wall should be constructed is as follows. A partition wall requires wall studs, floor plate and top plate. Wall studs should be divided 16 inch separated, of focus to focus remove (Brock, 2005). Begin by cutting the floor plate and top plate that will be utilized on the partition wall. These plates should be made by utilizing long lengths of wood, twelve or sixteen-foot length. Make sure to quantify the floor plate and recall that it won’t go through an entryway. Once the floor and top plate are cut, stamp the coveted stud appropriation, sixteen crawls on focus.
Utilizing a chalk line, stamp on the floor where the plate will be introduced. Nail the floor plate in position. Utilizing a 3/16 masonry bit, bore an opening through the wood into the concrete. Bore another sledge penetrate openings each sixteen inches along the plate, close to the focal point of the board. Finish an effect driver. Utilize the effect driver to drive a three-inch concrete screw into each gap. Since the base plate is connected to the floor, utilize a ling 2 x 4 to position the top plate specifically over the base plate.
On the off chance that the partition wall keeps running over the joists in the roof, nail the top plate to every joist. On the off chance that that is not the situation, at that point you should introduce connecting of 2 x 4 between the joists to give a strong surface that can be utilized to nail the top plate. Spanning should likewise be introduced on sixteen-inch focuses and connect them to the joist utilizing two nails on each finish of each crossing over piece. You can guarantee legitimate arrangement of the top plate by hanging a plumb bob.
To fabricate the partition wall quicker, all studs and top plate should be amassed on the floor as a solitary piece (Langdon, 1998). By doing this you ought to have the capacity to nail the top plate straight into the top of each wall stud. Place them around four feet up, end-on between each stud. Some of the time studs may have distinctive lengths, so in such cases, introduce the top plate and toenail each stud set up. The privilege toenailing might comprise of driving two-sixteen d-nails into the side of the stud, nailed at 45º point so nails can enter the plate.
Toenail the studs to the base plate. Entryway openings should be three inches more extensive and a little more than 1.5” more extensive than the genuine size of the entryway. Introduce extra 2x 4’s on the two sides of the entryway opening, and nail a top header. Make sure to nail a short disabled person stud between the header and the top plate. Nail 2 x 4′ on a level plane between studs at the midpoint of the partition wall. It is prescribed that blocking might be amazed so pieces can be nail from the end. Whenever completed, cover the partition wall with framing or drywall and done.
Ceramic tiles could be easily manufactured even at home and the procedure to manufacture ceramic tiles is as given below. Begin by picking a smooth, dry surface to make ceramic tiles. The range ought to be far from any wellspring of dampness, warm, or sudden movements. The fundamental constituent of every single ceramic tile is clay (Bender and Handle, 1982). You have to knead a modest bunch of polymer clay. This sort of clay is tougher than other less expensive assortments of clays. Wet the clay with water and begin kneading it. Knead the clay until the whole clay-blend appears to be delicate and without any knots.
To make the essential edge of the ceramic tile, you have to make break even with estimated pieces from the kneaded clay (Fugmann, 1991). Take off little bits of clay, utilizing the stick. Guarantee that the took off clay is no less than 0.25-inches thick. Utilizing a blade, cut the took off clay in the required shape. The square shape is the least demanding to cut and the most widely recognized shape for ceramic tiles. On the off chance that you aren’t sure about the consistency of the squared clay pieces, utilize a ruler to gauge each end.
Utilize the blade to remove the additional bits of clay. You can likewise cut the clay tiles at points or along bends. On the off chance that you aren’t sure about making even bends, utilize a huge, somewhat sharp protest like a metal bowl. Press the metal bowl upon the took off clay to get even-sized, roundabout tiles. On the off chance that you need to plan the tiles, utilize a pointed yet little question, similar to a paper cut. Utilizing the sharp end of the clasp, scratch a plan on the surface of the tile. In the event that you need to improve the tile, utilize little stones or dots. Since the clay is still delicate at this stage, these things can be effortlessly squeezed upon its surface (Geiger, 1991).
Set a kiln or a stove at a temperature run normally favored for family preparing purposes (Burzacchini, 1991). More often than not, polymer-clay makes say the required temperature extend as a piece of the bundled guidelines. Heat the clay tiles in the stove/kiln until the point when their upper surface builds up a particular outside layer. Permit the prepared clay tiles to cool. Tidy off any flotsam and jetsam framed because of the crusting. Pour a portion of the shiny tile sealer into a paint plate. Plunge a brush with sheep fleece swarms into the tile sealer arrangement. Coat the clay tile, utilizing light strokes. Enable the main covering to dry. Wipe the tile with a dry fabric. Apply more layers of the sealer on the off chance that you require more gleam.
Partition walls are subjected to seismic test like shake table test (Filiateault, et al, 2004 and Petrone, et al., 2017). and acoustic test like sound transmission limit test. It is also subjected to fire test to find its integrity and evaluate the spreading of fire. Ceramic Tiles are subjected to tests (Stawiski and Kania, 2016). like crazing resistance test, chemical resistance test, stain resistance, moisture expansion test, thermal shock test, linear thermal expansion test, deep abrasion test, surface abrasion test, calculation of static coefficient of friction, modulus of rupture, test to evaluate the breaking strength and bond strength test.
Some of the advantages of Partition Walls are as follows.
Some of the disadvantages of Partition Walls are as follows.
Some of the advantages of Ceramic tiles are mentioned here.
The disadvantages of using Ceramic tiles are mentioned here
References
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