Understanding The Impact Of Perception And Personality Theories On Employee Motivation

Process Theories of Perception and Employee Motivation

In every organization, every manager needs to consider the strategies that when adopted in the organization will be essential and effective in inspiring the employees within the organization. Getting to understand this concept is the utmost vital in case we are to understand the effective management and work behavior of the employees. In other words, it is essential to understand the reason that motivates an individual to perform well in effectively meet the set goals and objectives of the organization. In his study, Dar (2017) points out that motivating the workforce to professionally and effectively complete their tasks in the correct and timely manner is one of the primary responsibilities of a manager within the organization. The same study denotes that changing the perspectives of the employees is at times considered the most valuable way of constructively improving the organizational culture and behavior. It also recommends that employees with a perception of greater control over their work are often motivated to excelling in their professional roles within the structure the organization adopts.

According to Meneghel, BorgogniMiraglia, Salanova, and Martínez (2016), every manager needs to focus on finding answers to different questions such as what motives the workforce? Why does an employee try to meet their work target and pursue excellence while another merely show up at the organization while only counting the working hours? As with such questions, the study denotes that the answers are anything but simple when the solution can be identified. As a result, there are several theories that try to explain the concept of employees’ motivation, often categorized under process and need-based theories. However, this paper is going to focus on the description and understanding of perception and personality theories that can effectively assist the manager to be increasingly effective in handling the employees within the organization. 

Perception is defined as the process and the ability of an individual to recognize and interpret and respond to sensory information (Jiseon, & Young 2015, p. 8). In other words, it is the process that involves taking in sensory information and using the information in interacting with the environment in a meaningful way. The theories of perception hence postulate on the responsibilities of the management in an organization to create an environment that can foster performance and positivity (Meneghel et al. 2016, p. 89). For instance, expectancy theory of perception, the motivation of an individual in putting forth less or more effort is often based on a rational calculation that helps the individuals in evaluating their situation.

Influencing Instrumentality

According to the theory, the first stage is whether an individual believes his high level of efforts can lead to outcomes of interest and performance, a perception often called expectancy. For examples, is the effort put forth by an employee in the organization related to performing well in his roles? If the employee does, then he is more likely to put more effort. The second calculation aspect is the level of relationship that performance have with the subsequent outcomes like rewards; an aspect often called instrumentality. For instance, can a manager believe that being rewarded for the effective performance of the employees is related to the role he played in helping them to ensure effective performance? If yes, the manager will put more effort in motivating the employees to perform even better. The third aspect is the value of rewards that awaits them due to performance, an anticipated outcome of satisfaction often called valence. For example, can an employee value getting a promotion or gaining approval from the management? In case the outcomes are desirable, the instrumentality and expectancy are high, and the employee is more likely to put effort towards achieving the objective.

In a systematic review, Park, Heesun, and Hyun (2017) denote that expectancy theory has been accepted by many management concepts and is receiving more research with the aim of having a better understanding on how it can be adapted effectively to ensure better employee performance in an organization. For example, a manager within a marketing organization should be very influencing in helping the employees to meet their target customers within a set timeframe. As a result, here is how the employees should be motivated a to think according to the theory.

• Expectancy: An employee should ask questions like will I be able to do it effectively? If I put more effort, can I really meet the weekly target of customers? Is there a relationship between the more effort I put and the whether I will reach the goal? In case the employee feels he can achieve the set target owing to the effort he makes, then he is having a high expectancy, an aspect that is essential in motivating professional performance of every employee.
• Instrumentality: the employee should be concerned with questions such as what will I or the organization gain? What will happen in case I meet the weekly target customers? What outcomes will follow my effort? Are they going to give me any reward or increase my commission? Will I be named the salesperson of the year? In other words, instrumentality becomes high in case the employee believes that his good performance has a direct relationship with performance.
• Valence: the employee should as well be concerned with issues such as, how will I feel concerning the outcomes in the questions? Do I fell like an increase in commission or the possible rewards is desirable? Is being named the salesperson of the year attractive enough?  Is there a need by being praised by the management and is it desirable? As a result, the valence of an employee becomes high when the answers to the above questions are positive.

In case the outcomes of the above concerns are not desirable, then the final impact is negative. However, a positive or desirable result will motivate the employee to work hard with the aim of achieving higher heights of the set objectives. In a systematic review, Seung-Wan (2017) denotes that how a manager influences all these three primary perceptions will greatly have a direct or indirect impact on their performance of the employees within the organization. The same study denotes that there is a need for the employers and managers to understand the impact of the employees as they are the primary determinants of the success of the organization. In many studies, there are different ideas that are postulated on the influence of the senior management when it comes to expectancy theory. The structure, culture, and strategies, as well as the management styles adopted by the management in an organization, will be essential in influencing the instrumentality, valence, and expectancy among the employees.

Influencing Expectancy

Influencing Instrumentality: In his study on the concept of motivation to employees, Hassan (2016) points out that proving to the workforce that their performance within the organization is valued and rewarded is effective when aiming at increasing the mentality perceptions among the employees. As a result, the senior management needs to connect the payment of the employees with other rewards to performance such as bonuses, merit pay, and award systems. However, Nam (2015) points out that the strategy is not often sufficient as they employees may not be aware of some of the rewards that await high performers. The same study denotes that the publicizing of award or contest programs is necessary in brining rewards to the employee’s awareness while making it clear from them to understand that it is performance that is awarded and not any other thing. For instance, in case the organization has an employer of the year award that rotates among the employees, then they are unlikely to believe that it is performance that is being awarded.     It is a type of meritless reward system that can hamper the motivation of employees who perform highest as it erodes instrumentality as pointed out by (Zhang 2016, p. 8).

Influencing expectancy: From the analysis, it is evident that most employees within the organization tend to believe that their efforts can lead to effective performance for several reasons. For instance, some may see themselves as less qualified due to lack of sufficient skills, abilities, and knowledge required in the successful performance of their jobs. For a manager, the answer to this challenge is hiring people who are qualified as per the role requirements or offering training and development to the employees with the aim of boosting their skills and knowledge as per the requirements (Zhang 2016, p. 8). On the other hand, low level of expectancy may arise when the employees have the feeling that something other than the effort can predict performance such as policies, political behaviors, appraisals, etc.

In other words, the working environment may affect the performance when their roles are not clear, or there is a lack of sufficient resources required to perform the different roles within the organization. As a result, the senior management of the organization needs to clear the path for employees’ performance with the aim of ensuring every employee within the organization understands what is expected of them within their duties. The management should as well ensure the organization creates an environment that does not make the employees feel restricted and at the same time has the necessary resources the employees require in carrying out their roles. On the other hand, other employees may feel they perceive a little connection between their performance level and effort due to low self-esteem, an external control locus, or other personality traits that condition them to think that the effort they make often doesn’t make much significant. In such cases, the senior management needs to adopt strategies that will address the issues such as the provision of a positive feedback while encouraging the employees will help in building a culture of motivation.

Influencing Valence

Influencing valence: In a systematic review, Yucai (2015)denotes that employees are often motivated in case they find the rewards offered by the organization to be attractive. In other words, it is essential that the senior management identifies what the employee values as motivational. Ensuring a high valence requires the management to evaluate and understand all the factors that need to be considered when it comes to what employees’ value. In their study, Wei and Vega (2014) points out that the generational gap and age difference between employees in an organization often determines their behavior and motivation towards successful performance. For instance, the young generation may find the workplace interesting and effective when they can have access to unlimited internet services within the working premises while that may not be anything of importance to the older workforce. The desirable rewards as well need to be fair and satisfying considering the different factors that affect all the facets of the workforce. In gaining the understanding, it is essential that the management talks to the employees while surveying them on what they may find valuable so as to gain an effective understanding of this concept. Reed et al. (2017) also assert that the management needs to give the employees a choice between the multiple rewards as an effective idea of increasing valence among the employees.

According to Meijuan (2014), personality is the defined as the dynamic organization of the psychological systems within an individual that determines the though and characteristic behavior of the person. It can also be understood as the blend of characteristics making a person unique. However, both the definitions simply emphasize on the uniqueness of a person while consequently adopting an ideographic view on the concept of personality. As a result, personality theories postulate both idiographic and nomothetic views as essential factors that determine the behavior of a person. In other words, the idiographic view of personality assumes that every individual often possesses a unique psychological structure since there are traits that are only possessed by one person and there are moments when comparing one person with another by their traits becomes irrelevant. On the other hand, the nomothetic view makes emphasis on the comparability between different people hence sees traits to have same psychological meaning for everyone.

In a systematic review, Wei (2016) points out that personality theories focus on seeing traits are possessing similar psychological meaning for every person. The approach adopts self-report questions and factor analysis; an essential aspect that at the end proves that individually differs in their positions along a certain continuum within the similar set of traits. In other words, within the management of an organization, every employee as well as every manager possesses specific traits that determine how they act, think, and interact with individuals in the process of duty. As a result, the trait of the management personnel has direct effects on their behavior and how they treat employees that at the end will either motivate them to work effectively in meeting their roles and obligations or discourage them from the performance.

Personality Theories and Employee Motivation

In his study, Dar (2017) points out those personality trait theories of personality tend to imply that personality has a biological basis but are as well influenced by the environment. The study thus considers the necessity of considering the interaction and influence of nature and the influence it has on personality development. In other words, the environment surrounding the organization can as well have a direct and indirect influence on the performance of both the employees and the management. For an effective understanding of this concept, Livingston and Forbes (2017) present several theories that determine the personality of an individual, in this case, a senior manager of an organization and the influence it has on the behavior and performance of the staff. Freud’s Theory involves different factors such as instinct drivers, unconscious processes, as well as childhood influences that form interplay of instincts. According to this theory, Jing and Baiyin (2015) denotes that a manager of an organization can be rude, outspoken, kind, caring, etc., depending on the environment where he grew up.

On the other hand, the tripartite theory of personality denotes that personality can be structured into three primary components that all develops at different stages of life. These include the ego, id, and superego, systems that considered not being physical or parts of the brain but all determines the behavior of a person. According to Dar (2016), id is the instinctive and primitive component of personality but operates on the pleasure principle that all the wishful impulse in a person should be satisfied regardless of the consequences. The ego hence acts as a referee between the unrealistic id and the external reality hence considered the decision-making component of personality. The ego operates on the reality principle in determining our realistic ways of satisfying the demands of id’s while postponing or compromising satisfaction with the aim of avoiding negative consequences within the organization. The ego as well determines the social norms and realistic, rules and etiquette in decision making on how an employee or a manager should behave. Salanova and Martínez (2016) also assert that the superego often incorporates the morals and values of the society which are learned from parents and other senior people. It is hence similar to the consequence that can push the ego to cause a feeling of guilt. In other words, them management concepts and behaviors possessed by a junior manager and how he treats employees is often a reflection of the management skills of the senior management above them.

Conclusion

Even though individuals differ in their characteristic and behavior as a result of their genetic influence, the tripartite theory of personality postulates that a trait predisposes every person to act in a certain way regardless of the situation. It is the concept behind certain leadership and management styles adopted by managers within an organization. For instance, a manager can remain very motivational to the employees even when the organization is facing challenges such as tough economic times. Such a manager will motivate the employs to remain focused regardless of the economic situation; an aspect that has proven to be effective in helping the organization survive through the challenges and market dynamics of the 21st-century business environment.  The tripartite theory of personality hence explains why senior managers possess certain behaviors and characteristics that are either motivational or discouraging to the employees. However, it is the responsibility of the organization to ensure.

Recommendations and Conclusion

From the analysis of the theories, it is evident that perception and personality of a manager has a direct influence on the behavior and performance of both the employees and the organization. According to Tay, Lees, & Dar (2016), the perception of an employee towards positive performance in an organization is based on a stimulus threshold. For instance, wrongful perceptions from the management within the organization such as errors, poor decision-making, poor performance, etc. can lead to great problems within the organization. It is hence recommended that the senior management should understand their social perception on the junior managers and the employees, in general, can greatly motivate or demoralize the employees.

The need to understand the all the aspects of motivation within the organization remains high if the workforce that there exist opportunities for professional advancements and personal development. Motivation is also reduced when the employees perceive the absence of opportunities for growth in all aspects such as professional growth, involvement in decision-making, and demonstrations of employees creativity among other essential aspects. As a result, the senior management should foster a culture and structure of motivation within the organization. For instance, providing opportunities for easy social interaction within the organization can effectively improve the social intimacy among the employees thus help in work interaction improvement. Senior managers must also work outwards controlling their perceptions of the employees such as withholding where evaluative judgments without adequate information concerning the work performance of the employees.

List of References

Dar, O 2016, ‘Job performance expectations and perceptions of retail employees: Cognitive dissonances between self-reports and supervisor-ratings’, South African Journal Of Business Management, 47, 3, pp. 13-23, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Hassan, H 2016, ‘Leader’s Self-Efficacy and Effectiveness of Leadership Styles’, Abasyn University Journal Of Social Sciences, 9, 1, pp. 86-102, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Jing, J, & Baiyin, Y 2015, ‘Roles Of Creative Process Engagement And Leader–Member Exchange In Critical Thinking And Employee Creativity’, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 43, 7, pp. 1217-1231, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Jiseon, S, & Young W, S 2015, ‘Effects Of Employees’ Social Comparison Behaviors On Distributive Justice Perception And Job Satisfaction’, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 43, 7, pp. 1071-1083, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Livingston, L, & Forbes, S 2017, ‘Resilience, Motivations for Participation, and Perceived Organizational Support Amoungst Aesthetic Sports Officials’, Journal Of Sport Behavior, 40, 1, pp. 43-67, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Meijuan, W 2014, ‘Campus Job Suppliers’ Preferred Personality Traits Of Chinese Graduates: A Grounded Theory Investigation’, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 42, 5, pp. 769-781, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Meneghel, I, Borgogni, L, Miraglia, M, Salanova, M, & Martínez, I 2016, ‘From social context and resilience to performance through job satisfaction: A multilevel study over time’, Human Relations, 69, 11, pp. 2047-2067, Education Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Nam, C 2015, ‘Mechanisms Underlying Creative Performance: Employee Perceptions Of Intrinsic And Extrinsic Rewards For Creativity’, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 43, 7, pp. 1161-1179, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Park, J, Heesun, C, & Hyun, K 2017, ‘When And Why High Performers Feel Job Dissatisfaction: A Resource Flow Approach’, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 45, 4, pp. 617-627, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Reed, J, Palmero, M, Sato, K, Hsieh, C, & Stone, M 2017, ‘Athlete Perceptions of a Monitoring and Strength and Conditioning Program’, Sport Journal, p. 1, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Salanova, M, & Martínez, I 2016, ‘From social context and resilience to performance through job satisfaction: A multilevel study over time’, Human Relations, 69, 11, pp. 2047-2067, Education Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Seung-Wan, K 2017, ‘Effects Of Transformational And Shared Leadership Styles On Employees’ Perception Of Team Effectiveness’, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 45, 3, pp. 377-386, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Tay, A, Lees, C, & Dar, O 2016, ‘Job performance expectations and perceptions of retail employees: Cognitive dissonances between self-reports and supervisor-ratings’, South African Journal Of Business Management, 47, 3, pp. 13-23, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Wei, F, & Vega, R 2014, ‘Do Employees Know How Their Supervisors View Them? A Study Examining Metaperceptions of Job Performance’, Human Performance, 27, 5, pp. 435-457, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Wei, L 2016, ‘Effects Of Positive Mood And Job Complexity On Employee Creativity And Performance’, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 44, 5, pp. 865-880, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Yucai, L 2015, ‘Employees’ Psychological Ownership And Self-Efficacy As Mediators Between Performance Appraisal Purpose And Proactive Behavior’, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 43, 7, pp. 1101-1109, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.

Zhang, J 2015, ‘Collective-efficacy as a mediator of the relationship of leaders’ personality traits and team performance: A cross-level analysis’, International Journal Of Psychology, 50, 3, pp. 223-231, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 23 May 2017.