This project dissects a number of operation aspects that influence decommissioning process in terms of benefits and regulation costs.
In spite of the environmental impacts, huge costs, and logistical difficulties, little attention is paid on the wind power turbine decommissioning projects. Decommissioning is a vital part of the wind power project and therefore should be taken into consideration at the beginning of the project (Jerpåsen and Larsen, 2011, p.207). The paper seeks to establish the sustainable decommissioning program that is supported by the environmental assessment impact. Decommissioning contains the following decommissioning procedure: turbines, foundations, cable, substation and met tower, scour protection, and site clearance (Lamont et al., 2013, p. 68). The paper provides analysis on how dismantling should be carried out to ensure that there is minimum environmental pollution and proper restoration of the original site during the end of life phase. Specifically, the paper aims at dissecting decommissioning process in light of Sweden and United Kingdom methodologies, in terms of costs, environmental concern, sustainability, and issuance of permit. While the paper acknowledges that lack of proper guidelines in past decommissioning process has led to ambiguity, emphasis is on socio-economic factors.
The purpose of analysing cost models is to develop models that would help wind turbine developers to evaluate the future costs that they are likely to incur as part of decommissioning. Ideally, the paper does not seek to obtain exact prices, but to establish and understand economic impacts of decommissioning wind turbines. Decommissioning is a more complex and challenging process compared to the oil and gas projects and therefore each of the aforementioned procedures requires adequate planning in terms of finances and time (Joseph, 2014). The study emphasize on importance of sufficient time and resource allocation to facilitate effective decommissioning process. The main objectives of the proposal are the following:
To explore sustainable methods of decommissioning wind power turbines
To analyse how to minimize environmental pollution during the decommissioning process
To establish cost-effective methods of decommissioning wind power turbine projects
Scholars have addressed the topic of wind turbine decommissioning with regard to cost, sustainability, and environmental conservation. On the subject of cost analysis, scholars have been estimating the possible cost involved in the dismantling process. For instance, Kaiser and Synder (2012, p.116) estimate the cost of decommissioning wind turbines in the United States offshore farms, to determine the amount of bond that offers financial security in ensuring that the decommissioning obligations are met in case the operator is unable to meet the obligations.
Scientists have employed specific models for assessing the removal cost and, according to Anderson et al (2016, p. 16), each component involves removal, processing, as well as scrap revenues or disposal costs. The “removal costs are function of the work duration per unit, the number of units, and the day rate of vessel conducting the work” (Kaiser and Synder, 220). However, the calculation of the processing cost, scrap revenues, and disposal costs are done separately on price/ton basis. On each component, the total cost of decommissioning is equal to “the sum of the cost of all removal, processing, disposal, and scrap modules.”
There are three components disposal costs: transport cost, processing cost, and landfill costs. Kaiser and Synder (2012, p.217) compartmentalize the cost of turbine development into three categories: initial capital cost for constructing wind farm, annual variable cost, and dismantling cost. Scholars identify dismantling cost as the most uncertain due to insufficient experience in deconstructing activity. Other scholars compare decommissioning to the past oil projects (Kaiser and Synder, 2012, p.98). However, unlike wind turbines, decommissioning process in the oil projects involves routine and low-tech procedures.
The first component to remove is turbine. Decommissioning involves removal of the entire turbine from the site and then dissembling it onshore. Liberman (2012, p.1637) observe that reasonable time is critical to reduce operational risk and make the process economical. The next item to dismantle is transition piece, which connects the lower section of the turbine tower to the foundation. The process includes removing massive J-tubes by cutting to make lifting possible. The next step is landfilling to cover the holes created by removal of the foundation followed by dismantling the topside of offshore substation, which involves filling the structure with resin to empty it and minimize the risk of oil spillage (Zhang and Bihe, 2016, p.79). Other structures that are dismantled include meteorological and mast subsea cables.
Over the past decade, there has been increased awareness on the environmental issues related to fossil fuel as wake up call to adopt renewable forms of energy that have lower impact on the environment. Some of the energy sources that have received more attention to date include solar, hydro, and wind power. However, all the sources of energy supply require energy evaluation to ensure that the whole life cycle and its impact on the environment is taken into consideration Slimacek and Lindqvist (2016, p.197). To underscore the sustainability of the renewable sources, it is incumbent that the elements and materials used are optimally managed starting from the production process, installation, operation, decommissioning, up to the removal phase. Wind power energy is fast growing in different parts of the world particularly in the United States, Sweden, and Germany (Sirmani and Farsoni, 2018, p.186). The common assumption is that the lifespan of the wind turbine take 20 years. However, the development of wind power in many countries including Sweden began at least 25 years ago— an implication that decommissioning of turbines is taking place and that the numbers will escalate (Topham and McMillan, 2017, p.471).
While the management of decommissioned wind turbines remains bleak, worn out parts can be recycled and reused for other purposes. Thomsen (2014, p. 152) estimates the recyclability of the modern wind turbine to be 80 percent. Studies on waste management of the wind turbines and sustainable decommissioning are scarce. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of wind turbines have been done on various parts of the world, including Mexico, China, and Spain (Thomsen, 2014, p. 157).
The paper acknowledges the fact that it is difficult to perceive that the residual value of the wind turbine has the capacity to cover the decommissioning cost because the scrap market is quintessentially volatile and uncertain. After establishing decommissioning cost, it is vital to secure funds required for the dismantling process. Kaiser and Synder (2012, p.37) observe that surety bond if fundamental component of the decommissioning regulation. Dismantling procedure, based on the operator’s perspective, reflects the cost to be incurred in future. On the other hand, government perceive it as the financial risk if the operator becomes bankrupt.
Central to the process of decommissioning has been the cost factor. Cost analysis has since been made possible parameterization, which involves collection of the time needed for decommissioning process and the concomitant costs. The process of decommissioning conjures up the concept of “learning effect,” which is the impact of total experience of undertaking decommissioning of projects as well as its potential contribution towards the cost of decommissioning (Kaiser and Synder, 2012, p.38). Additionally, fluctuations in metal prices have been analysed in the recent past with aim of establishing how they affect the residual value of wind turbines once they become non-operational. Most scenarios, however, have excluded inflation, learning effect, and fluctuation of metal prices. Ideally, decommissioning process need to encompass all the aforementioned factors. Still on financial aspect, it is paramount to introduce measures that can help to improve approaches to decommissioning process. These measures should include how to include dismantling into accounts, whether provisions need to be tax deductibles, how to account for competitive neutrality, how to allocate potential surplus capital in situations where decommissioning cost is not anticipated, how to deal with matters of change ownership, and how to follow up restoration to the completion of the process.
Studies on decommissioning process provide key insight to wind turbine industry in terms of existential challenges in managing in managing decommissioned wind turbines, available options for recycling and remanufacturing, salient activities in recovery methods and reverse supply chains, and business as well as economic issues related to the end life of wind turbines (Kaiser and Synder, 2012, p.132). The study is also fundamental in helping the learner to understand different disposal techniques— open and closed recycling. Due to increasing market cost of key materials, remanufacturing approach has been identified as one of the best method to sustaining wind turbines in long term (Kaiser and Synder, 2012, p.141).
The study helps in understanding different methods of after use with regard to wind turbines. These techniques include refurbishing, which relies on cost and availability of components; reselling, which depends on market demand, and recycling, which depends on size of turbines (Topham and McMillan, 2017, p.473). On recycling, the proliferation of reprocessing technology has led to increased scrap value of materials like aluminium, steel, and concrete. Demand for wind turbine materials in the global market has been moving on upward trajectory. Topham and McMillan (2017, p.478) estimate that materials recovered from the wind turbine sites can reach 80 percent and therefore there is need to adopt recycling approach. Recycling approach helps to reduce imports, close material cycles, and minimize consumption of virgin materials hence creating new business opportunities. This is the central goal of any academic discourse.
Research gaps accentuated in this study include cost analysis, policies, regulations, and environment. Research questions will focus on these aspects.
Research questions
Do you think we have sufficient technology to aid decommissioning process?
Has agricultural, energy, and environmental research and development been sufficient to promote dismantling of wind power turbine?
Has the government taken adequate measures to ensure that the decommissioning of the wind turbine is sustainable?
According to Shea et al (2013, p.63) a viable research is underpinned on the reliability and accuracy of data. The research will use both quantitative and qualitative data for adequate comparison and data analysis. The main research methods will be research surveys and interviews.
The researcher will draft questionnaire that focuses on the issues of sustainability, environmental accountability, decommissioning technology, issues of cost, and time. The leading principle is that the aforementioned aspects have been the centre of the previous studies.
Before doing interviews and drafting the questionnaire, the researcher will conduct a pilot study to establish the feasibility of the research. The pilot study will depend on the professor’s comment about the study. The questionnaire will be distributed to wind power turbine experts. According to Saunders et al (2016, p. 185), an expert is a person that occupies an office in a given professional field or an individual that possess a special knowledge and skills in a given line of profession. Bearing that there is time constraint, only 70 questionnaires will be disseminated.
In order to establish an overview of the era of wind turbine decommissioning, data were collected in several ways. First, available research papers and reports on the decommissioning cost assessment, removal methods and regulations were gathered and analysed. Subsequently, an overview of the Swedish /Denmark and UK methodologies regarding to how these costs have to be assessed as well as what developers are required to do regarding the decommissioning in the permit issuance were included. Finally, detailed estimated dismantling cost data was obtained from Tèkne s.r.l., an Italian Engineering Firm that deals with public works, renewable projects, telecommunications and other, for one of the wind parks in Italy they have assessed (Falco M., 2014). Mariagrazia Falco is the design engineer in Tèkne s.r.l that allowed me to study the wind farm specifications about the dismantling operations and in the paper, her name will be used to refer to the firm estimated data. The Italian estimated cost data were compared with data collected in Sweden and several case studies, both based on estimated and real data, are presented.
Out of the 70 questionnaires, 20 will be online surveys while 10 will be mail questionnaires. Nix and Hall (2016, p.312) observe that survey approach is best method of protecting the confidentiality and the anonymity of the respondents. Hence, the survey will not collect any information that might lead to the trace of the respondents’ identity. Thereafter, critical analysis to the experts’ opinion will follow by maintaining utmost confidentiality to safeguard their identity. Based on adequacy, due to time and financial constraint involved in obtaining a larger sample, the research will target a minimum of 30 responses from the experts. Shea et al (2013, p.281) contend that the validity of the survey relies on the appropriateness and meaningfulness of the researcher’s inferences, which is underpinned on the data collected.
The researcher will conduct telephone interviews by making 45 calls in a span of 15 days. Telephone interview is preferred since it is cost effective and saves time compared to face-to-face-interview. The researcher will use “live-scribe smartphone to record the interview” (McBurney and White, 2013, p.392). After recording, the researcher will transcribe the files and then delete those (Saunders et al., 2016, p.273).
First, by conceptualizing how to decommission wind power turbine, the research improves my decision-making and problem solving skills. Decommissioning process is a complex process that requires sound decision-making to operate the system efficiently and effectively. In addition, the research familiarizes me with approaches to decommissioning process that helps to improve environmental accountability through minimizing pollution by reduction of oil spillage. Environmental conservation ensures that future generation are not exposed to the polluted environment. The study also helps me to understand economic factors with regard to wind turbines— fluctuation of prices and global demand.
The research enables me to understand the importance of consultations and open communication in developing a successful organizational project. Decommissioning process requires advanced planning. Conceptualizing the whole process through research enables me to be a good planner in terms of time and resource management. Studies on decommissioning process provide key insight to wind turbine industry in terms of existential challenges in managing in managing decommissioned wind turbines, available options for recycling and remanufacturing, salient activities in recovery methods and reverse supply chains, and business as well as economic issues related to the end life of wind turbines. Hence, the study is also fundamental in helping the learner to understand different disposal techniques— open and closed recycling.
The project will utilize Eva Topham and David McMillan (2017) findings on the “Sustainable decommissioning of an offshore wind far.” Tmpham and McMillan examine different methods of decommissioning offshore wind turbines. The authors also explore decommissioning phases, and methods of conducting the process efficiently. This source is significant to the study as it enables the researcher to have background information in the decommissioning process. The article is elaborative and precise and dissects specifically important point points. The researcher can easily conceptualize the underlying subject and relate with the previous studies. Therefore, the researcher considers the source ideal for the study.
Another significant source in the study will be Edward J Liberman’s work on (2012) “Life cycle assessment and economic analysis of wind turbines using Monte Carlo simulation. The author encompasses both aspects of energy and environmental sustainability. Liberman (2012) elaborates on turbine maintenance, power distribution, as well as well as decommissioning and disposal of turbine wind power. More importantly, the author introduces economic aspect in the turbine life lifecycle. This source will help the author to develop sensitive analysis on issues of environmental sustainability and renewable energy. The source will also be important in conceptualizing economic factors that surrounds decommissioning of the wind turbine.
The third literature source that is fundamental to the study is Kyser and Synder (2012) work on “Offshore wind energy cost modelling: Installation and decommissioning.” to conceptualize the decommissioning process. Kyser and Synder (2012) explore installation and decommissioning of offshore wind turbine in the United States and outer continental shelf. The authors elaborate on cost estimate of decommissioning process by first developing methodologies that are underpinned on cost-effective implementation of the underlying process. Kyser and Synder (2012) developed installation and decomposition models by providing range of parameterization to reflect confidence in estimation process. Similarly, this literature will be significant in the research since the study is underpinned on establishing efficient approaches to decommissioning process.
The project will also employ Hou et al (2017) findings on “Offshore wind farm repowering optimization.” The authors comprehensively discuss cost-effective and environmental friendly installation and decommission stages. Hou et al (2017) also developed wind turbine cost evaluation index to determine whether it is economical to invest in such projects. The authors also incorporate issues of environmental conservation and sustainable development in their findings. Like the aforementioned source, this literature will be significant in the project because the concepts accentuated are consistent with the researcher’s scope of the study. The source will facilitate the researcher’s understanding on matters of benefits analysis and appraisal of the wind turbine project.
The project will also rely on Lamont et al (2013) findings on the “Wind Technology and Associated Carbon Footprint.” The literature explores wind power energy by emphasizing on issues of technology and efficiency. The authors also analyse cost-effective approaches for installation and decommissioning of wind power turbines. Similarly, Lamont et al (2017) also raises issue of environmental sustainability and renewable energy generation. Considerably, most of the topics discussed in this literature are relevant for the study because most of them reflect the general objective of the study. Therefore, the researcher finds it appropriate to include the source in developing literature.
References
Andersen, N., Eriksson, O., Hillman, K., & Wallhagen, M. (2016). Wind Turbines’ End-of-Life: Quantification and Characterisation of Future Waste Materials on a National Level. Energies, Vol.9, no.12, pp.1-24. doi:10.3390/en9120999
Bates, A. W. (2016). Key challenges of offshore wind power: Three essays addressing public acceptance, stakeholder conflict, and wildlife impacts.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education.
Hedevang, E. (2012). Wind turbine power curves incorporating turbulence intensity. Wind Energy, Vol.17, no.2, pp.173-195. doi:10.1002/we.1566
Hou, P., Enevoldsen, P., Hu, W., Chen, C., & Chen, Z. (2017). Offshore wind farm repowering optimization. Applied energy.
In Ostachowicz, W. M., In McGugan, M., In Schro?der-Hinrichs, J.-U, & In Luczak, M. (2016). MARE-WINT: New materials and reliability in offshore wind turbine technology. Switzerland: Springer Open.
Jerpåsen, G. B., & Larsen, K. C. (2011). Visual impact of wind farms on cultural heritage: A Norwegian case study. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Vol.31, no.3, pp.206-215. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2010.12.005
Joseph, D. M. (2014). Ensuring Grid Code Harmonic Compliance of Wind Farms. Engineering & Technology Reference. doi:10.1049/etr.2014.0017
Kaiser, M. J., & Snyder, B. F. (2012). Offshore wind energy cost modeling: Installation and decommissioning. London: Springer.
Lamont, Lisa Ann; Transmission and Distribution Division, Chaar, & Lana El; Power Generation Services. (2013). Wind Technology and Associated Carbon Footprint. Lifescience Global.
Liberman, E. J. (2012). A life cycle assessment and economic analysis of wind turbines using Monte Carlo simulation. S.l.: Biblioscholar.
Mallinson, C., Childs, B., & Van, H. G. (2017). Data Collection in Sociolinguistics: Methods and Applications, Second Edition. Milton: Taylor and Francis.
McBurney, D., & White, T. L. (2013). Research methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Nix, I., & Hall, M. (2016). Collecting questionnaire and interview data: Evaluating approaches to developing digital literacy skills. London: SAGE Publications.
Saunders, M. N., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2016). Research methods for business students (7th ed.). Pearson.
Shea, C., Roberts, M., Johnson, E. P., & Hadlock, W. (2013). Matching Data Collection Method to Purpose: In the Moment Data Collection with Mobile Devices for Occasioned Based Analysis. Survey Practice, Vol.6, no.1, pp.1-7. doi:10.29115/sp-2013-0003
Simani, S., & Farsoni, S. (2018). Fault diagnosis and sustainable control of wind turbines: Robust data-driven and model-based strategies. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Slimacek, V., & Lindqvist, B. H. (2016). Reliability of wind turbines modeled by a Poisson process with covariates, unobserved heterogeneity and seasonality. Wind Energy, Vol.19, no.11, pp191-202. doi:10.1002/we.1964
Thomsen, K. E. (2014). Offshore wind: A comprehensive guide to successful offshore wind farm installation. London, UK: Academic Press.
Topham, E., & McMillan, D. (2017). Sustainable decommissioning of an offshore wind farm. Renewable Energy, Vol.102, pp470-480.
Zhang, & Bihe. (2016). Life cycle assessment of selected wind turbines. Texas A&M University- Kingsville.
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