Second language Acquisition (SLA) allows an individual to use scientific disciplines and applied linguistics to learn new language (L2). It includes various others aspects such as education, learning, psychology etc. It helps the person to understand the systematic rules to acquire the important features of the second language (Ellis, 2015). The entire process has been divided into various stages which include preparations, initial production, emergence of speech, intermediate fluency and fluency advancement. Furthermore, it takes time for a person to gain high level of proficiency in the targeted language. The aim of this paper is to understand the theories, approaches and the factors which influence the learning process of an individual.
This chapter shows the relationship between the learner’s new language and process of SLA. Second language acquisition theory is considered as an important aspect of theoretical linguistics and scientific theory. It has many generalizations which can be used in the process by a learner. Hypothesis can be useful in understanding the new set of data but they have to be changed they fail in the event. Many linguistic researches have been applied in solving real life problems in the society. The theories and approaches which are used in SLA are given below:
Krashen’s Theory of SLA
According to Stephen Krashen, SLA needs interaction and communication which are conveyed in the targeted language (VanPatten and Williams, 2014). There are five hypotheses which are included in the theory: Acquisition learning hypothesis, input, affective filter, natural order and monitor hypothesis.
Acquisition learning hypothesis is the commonly used hypothesis by practitioners and linguists. It states the two systems which are independent of each other. Firstly, the acquired system consists of subconscious process which is similar to a child learning his first language (Kormos, 2014). They learner should communicate and interact with others in a meaningful language. Secondly, the learning system includes formal and conscious knowledge. For instance, the understanding of grammar. Stephen Krashen gives more importance to acquisition rather than learning.
Monitor hypothesis shows the linkage between the acquisition and the learning process. It has been developed after practical application of the learned grammar of the second language (Breen, 2014). The acquisition system is considered as initiator of communication. On the other hand, the learning system focuses on initiating plans, editing, monitoring and making corrections. It provides enough time to the learner to understand the form and correctness of the targeted language (Cook and Singleton, 2014). The monitor hypothesis helps in taking corrective measures which gives rise to polished speech. It has been found that extroverts use monitoring less as compared to introverts. It reduces the self confidence because of over used monitored hypothesis.
Natural hypothesis shows that a structured grammatical method is used which is predictable. It has been found that some grammatical structures are acquired while others take time. But it is not affected by age, first language, exposures etc (Mitchell, Myles and Marsden, 2013).
The input hypothesis shows the process in which the learner acquires the targeted language. It is entirely based on acquisition of the language and not learning process (Long, 2014). According to the theory, a natural order is followed which allows the learner to progress and gain deeper understanding in the language. The comprehensible inputs are used to develop linguistic competencies. Furthermore, natural communicative inputs are important in developing learning syllabus and following it effectively (Gass, 2013).
Affective filter hypothesis states that there are many affective variables which play a crucial role in SLA. These variables consist of anxiety, motivation and self confidence. High level of motivation, positive self image and confidence encourages a person to gain better understanding in the targeted language (Schumann, Crowell and Schuchert, 2014). Similarly, they have to keep their anxiety level low to avoid any obstacles. On the other hand, low motivation, self esteem and high level of anxious behavior creates a mental obstacle which gives rise to affective filter.
The Behaviorism theory was given by B. F Skinner and it has a simplified version which has been used in many experiments. He believed that the behavior of a person can be changed with the help of different stimulus (Larsen-Freeman and Long, 2014). It can be a positive reinforcement or negative depends on the learner. It is also known as SRR process. The main of this method is to change the behavior of the learner to make it his habit. It involves spontaneous decisions which are helpful in the learning process. Therefore, the human behavior along with the process of learning is taken into consideration (Saville-Troike and Barto, 2016). It can be used by a person to make changes so as to make the entire procedure more effective.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) does not support the Behaviorism theory. The main reason behind this is that children learn to speak and understand new languages in very early age. They even start mimicking the language patterns which they hear from others. This ability of the children and other people are considered as Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in this theory (Ellis and Laporte, 2014). He stated that the process which is used by children to develop their cognitive and innate abilities is different areas is not related to language learning. It was useful in the development of a new approach which was based on transformational grammar and phonology. The theorists laid stress on the utterances of the native people and the rules associated with it (Ortega, 2014). LAD was also adopted by Stephen Krashen in his theory.
The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) was not supported by many scientists. They believed that the learning ability of a human is an important part of the cognitive structure (Hulstijn, 2015). Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) was developed on the basis of cognitive structure and second language theory. The theorist focused on small units which can be used to gain understanding of the complex thinking. It is essential for the learner to take into account the small knowledge units which will be helpful for him to learn (Long, 2014). The hypothesis used in the theory focuses on procedural and declarative knowledge. The human knowledge should be dived into small parts which have been shown in the ACT model. Declarative knowledge can be stored easily by using pictures, schemas and images. On the other hand, procedural knowledge has a series of steps which ensures that main objective is achieved (Schumann, Crowell and Schuchert, 2014).
The comprehensive input was not included in the information processing theory in the language acquisition. Social interaction theories states that the linguistic environment and communication should be used to gain knowledge in the subject matter of the SLA (Mackey and Gass, 2015). For instance, the people who induce the behavior of the child and help him to learn new languages. Furthermore, conversations are considered important in the learning process as it allows the learner to apply it in the practical world. He can understand his mistakes and changes can be made accordingly. The can modify their speech, grammar or language structure to further gain command on the language (Lepp-Kaethler and Dörnyei, 2013). They can also take feedback from the listener which will make their entire process effective.
Natural approach
The Monitor hypothesis of Stephen Krashen for SLA was used for the Natural approach. The natural order should be used to create a structure for learning the second language. Furthermore, this approach differentiated between the learning and acquisitions used in the process (Kormos, 2014). Monitor function can be used to add fluency and to improve the speech in the targeted language. It includes both conscious and unconscious learning. It can be used to make changes and to take corrective measures. The comprehensive inputs are also applied which makes it easier for the learner to speak the targeted language. Furthermore, a filter is used which makes the process effective and well defined (Cook and Singleton, 2014). The natural approach also highlights the silent phase in which the learner has understood the language but takes time to gain confidence in it.
Audio-lingual approach
This approach was developed in native America. They used to record the language and document it to learn it in an effective manner. But they used oral communication more than the written communication. Furthermore, the natives had no experience in the written and formal analysis related to linguistics. They received benefits from the behavioral theory which was based on human behavior and simplification (Lepp-Kaethler and Dörnyei, 2013). It requires a stimulus, responses and a positive or negative reinforcement. It was known as SRR approach which provided benefits to many learners. It had repetition of grammar of the second language. Moreover, the differences between the native and new language could be easily identified and understood with the help of this (Ellis and Laporte, 2014). Positive reinforcements were used to motivate the learner while negative reinforcements were used to avoid errors.
Communicative approach
Communicative approach was very useful in real life situations. Different principles of teaching were used to design the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). The emphasis was given to the communication and interaction with the people of the targeted language (Mitchell, Myles and Marsden, 2013). Moreover, personal experiences and various elements were used in the learning. This approach is depended on the Social Interactions Theory, Content Based Instruction (CBI) and Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT). It provides the learner with ample of opportunities to learn and gain experience away from the controlled environment (Kormos, 2014). It has been used by many classrooms which have developed schedules to implement this in the real life situations.
Personally relevant applications in SLA
SLA has to be changed as per the requirements of the leaner. There are techniques which have been included in SLA process to make it more effective. Some of the techniques and methods are:
TPR: Total Physical Response (TPR) uses interactive learning in which the learning has to follow the same patterns which is used for the learning of targeted language (Vatz, Tare, Jackson and Doughty, 2013).
Cultural studies: The knowledge of the culture is provided to the students. It helps them to understand the learning theory related to the foreign language they have been studying.
Dialogue journals: Journals are used for the learning process. The student records the details in the journal which is reviewed by the teacher (Mackey and Gass, 2015). The corrections are made which helps the learner to see his mistakes.
Language Experience approach: The learner and the teacher discuss their experiences and the same incident is described in the other language.
Support of L1: In this approach, the conversation in the native language is banned. It allows the learner to converse only in the language which he has been learning (Eckman, Mileham and Lee, 2013). It consist of communication strategies, learning straggliest, pro forms, non verbal clues etc
Prior knowledge usage: Prior knowledge usage approach uses the existing knowledge of the learner to develop methods to enhance it.
Cooperative learning: Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is used for group activities which involve interaction and activities (Long, 2014). Various strategies can be developed and implanted for this.
Scaffoldings: Scaffoldings provides an assistant to the learner which helps him to gain understanding in the subject matter (Eckman, Mileham and Lee, 2013).
Second language Acquisition (SLA) requires a systematic approach from the learner. He also needs assistance from other people who are proficient in the language he is learning. Apart from this, the errors and problems have to identify from the beginning. The corrective measures should be developed to ensure that good command over the targeted language is developed. There can be many factors which can affect the learning of an individual (Ellis and Laporte, 2014). The most common ones are described below:
Internal factors
Age factor: The SLA process is affected by the age of the learner. Adults are much more successful in terms of learning, grammar and pronunciation. The ability and interest to learn new things reduced as the person becomes old (Mitchell, Myles and Marsden, 2013). They tend to take more time to learn new languages. They can also learn to speak second language. But the difference can be seen in their pronunciation and speech. Similarly, older children learn new language and gain command over it as compared to young children. They take less time and become better as the time progresses. Along with this, the proficiency in the language improves as the person becomes old and continues using the languages learned (Saville-Troike and Barto, 2016).
Intrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation can become a determining factor which can affect the learning process for an individual (Cook and Singleton, 2014). Educational qualifications and learning are highly dependent on each other. Those students who are interested in learning new language have better chances to become proficient in it. For instance, a student wants to learn English to take admission in the American University. He is likely to make better efforts as compared to others. He will be much more dedicated in achieving his objective. Lack of motivation will have direct impacts of the learning ability which will extend the schedules (Hulstijn, 2015).
Personality: It has been found that extroverts use monitoring less as compared to introverts. Introverts are more anxious which affects their capabilities to learn (Lantolf, Thorne and Poehner, 2015). It reduces their self confidence because of over used monitored hypothesis. Extroverts can take the advantage of different opportunities to shows case their talent and learning. They take less time berceuse they are ready to try it in real life situations. It works in their favor and they have better chances to grow. As a result, the personality of a person also affects their learning ability and competencies (Schumann, Crowell and Schuchert, 2014).
Cognition: Cognitive factors show the ability of a person to learn new skills. Some students tend to learn quickly as compared to other students who were given same assistance and resources. Intelligence is an important factor which gives advantages to the students during the learning of a second language (Saville-Troike and Barto, 2016). It is an internal factor which cannot be changed. Moreover, highly capable students tend to progress in a less time. They gain command over speech, grammar as well as pronunciation. On the other hand, learner will less capabilities and intelligence takes more time. They need practice and guidance.
New experiences: Those people who have more experiences and exposure tend to learn more quickly (Lantolf, Thorne and Poehner, 2015). They are in a better position because the second language will be useful for them in the future. For instance, a person has lived in different countries and he has learned many languages. He will be in a good position to learning another one. It causes problems for those students who have not had any such experiences. They do not understand the importance of the second language as they are unaware of its use in the real world (Larsen-Freeman and Long, 2014).
First language: The native language also affects the SLA process. It has been found that some languages have similar tones, grammar or related features. It causes differentiation between people who are trying to learn a language (Mitchell, Myles and Marsden, 2013). For instance, a Dutch person will find it much easier to learn English language as compared to a Chinese person. Chinese people have different accent and dialects which makes it difficult to pronounce words in English.
External factors
Instructions: It has been seen that some teachers and trainers are much more effective than others. They have creativity and innovation which makes the learning process better. Those students who fail to find proficient teachers become less capable in learning new languages (Mackey and Gass, 2015). They are not provided necessary training and accommodations which is required for the second language. It affects their morale and confidence level. It has direct impact on their intrinsic motivation which is not good for their learning (Kormos, 2014). There are many theories and approaches which can be used for language transfer. It can be a difficult process for the learner and it will have many constraints
Accessibility: Social interactions theories and cultural studies have shown the importance of accessibility of the native speakers. Those people who have better opportunities to interact with the people of other languages tend to learn quickly and better than others. They can easily apply their training in the real life situations which benefits them (Lantolf, Thorne and Poehner, 2015).
Extrinsic motivation: Extrinsic motivation consist of motivation form other people. For instance, the people who induce the behavior of the child and help him to learn new languages are a part of extrinsic motivation (Vatz, Tare, Jackson and Doughty, 2013). They provide the necessary encouragement which improves the morale and confidence level of the person. They become more positive in their approach. It can family, friends, relative or teachers.
Curriculum: The curriculum or schedules have to be made in order to develop a systematic approach towards learning a new language (Saville-Troike and Barto, 2016). They have to breakdown different parts of the entire process so as to focus on all the details. It makes the entire process more effective. Many learners fail to develop a curriculum which includes all the important aspects of the language that they have been learning. They have to be completely dedicated towards their learning process otherwise it will not yield favorable results.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that Second language Acquisition (SLA) requires a systematic approach which takes into consideration all the aspects of the languages such as its features, grammar, structure, sequences etc. There are many theories and approaches which can be used for language transfer. It can be a difficult process for the learner and it will have many constraints. These hindrances occur due to the prior linguistic knowledge of the learner. Furthermore, it will be beneficial for the person to adopt different strategies to make the language acquisition more successful. It consist of communication strategies, learning straggliest, pro forms, non verbal clues etc. It will make the entire process more effective and the learner will be able to gain command over the second language.
References
Breen, M., (2014). Learner contributions to language learning: New directions in research. Routledge.
Cook, V. and Singleton, D., (2014). Key topics in second language acquisition (Vol. 10). Multilingual matters.
Eckman, F.R., Mileham, J., Weber, R.R., Highland, D. and Lee, P.W., (2013). Second language acquisition theory and pedagogy. Routledge.
Ellis, N.C. and Laporte, N., 2014. and Naturalistic Exposure on Second Language Acquisition. Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspectives, p.53.
Ellis, R., (2015). Understanding Second Language Acquisition 2nd Edition-Oxford Applied Linguistics. Oxford university press.
Gass, S.M., (2013). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. Routledge.
Hulstijn, J.H., (2015). Explaining phenomena of first and second language acquisition with the constructs of implicit and explicit learning. Implicit and explicit learning of languages, 48, p.25.
Kormos, J., (2014). Speech production and second language acquisition. Routledge.
Lantolf, J.P., Thorne, S.L. and Poehner, M.E., (2015). Sociocultural theory and second language development. Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction, pp.207-226.
Larsen-Freeman, D. and Long, M.H., (2014). An introduction to second language acquisition research. Routledge.
Lepp-Kaethler, E. and Dörnyei, Z., (2013). The role of sacred texts in enhancing motivation and living the vision in second language acquisition. Christian faith and English language teaching and learning: Research on the interrelationship of religion and ELT, pp.171-188.
Long, M., (2014). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. John Wiley & Sons.
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Ortega, L., (2014). Second language learning explained? SLA across 10 contemporary theories. Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction, pp.245-272.
Saville-Troike, M. and Barto, K., (2016). Introducing second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Schumann, J.H., Crowell, S.E., Jones, N.E., Lee, N. and Schuchert, S.A., (2014). The neurobiology of learning: Perspectives from second language acquisition. Routledge.
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