Leadership is a practical skill area including capabilities to lead individuals within organisations (Lunenburg, 2012). Individuals, team or followers within organisations are guided through leader, who set examples and ways to conduct responsibilities. Social researchers from East and Western World often debate regarding the concept of leadership, there are also sharp contrasts amongst European and US concepts. Broadly leadership can be defined as a social influence, where a person supports others in a team towards achieving common goal. Inherent concept of leadership is derived from several factors, with most involving traits being functions, behaviours, situational interactions, vision, values, charisma and most importantly power.
Followers are individuals within teams or organisation that participate towards certain activities for achieving certain goals. Followers conduct task oriented performances as indicated by leaders and they conduct such roles on basis of mutual communications and trust. Followers are subordinates, who conduct social-oriented behaviours by participating in groups for decision making and task performances.
The scope of this paper draws from two distinct leadership model as leadership exchange model and skill based model for critically evaluating French and Raven’s social bases of power in leadership position (Raven, 2008). Individual choices for utilizing power bases by means of various drivers are recognised as power of influencer, agent, characteristics of person influenced, target, length of leader-follower relationship, nature of organisation, perception of target regarding agent and targets or agents position within organisational hierarchy. Thus, at the end conclusion is drawn connecting the theories with power bases.
Leader come from structures of organisation due to their personal characteristics, arising of certain situations or from combination of both the factors. Leaders are recognised for their ability to lead and control or make large number of followers, to cater to their orders. Leaders are recognised by their ability to influence others for enforcing certain actions (Chemers, 2014). A leader is known to influence a group or team of people towards some desired or ascertained objectives. Power is known to be a stronger form of influence whereby leaders are able to exert control over others for certain rewards. Power is regarded as a stronger form of influence as it includes a person’s capability to enforce action through punishments. Influence reflects a formal authority of a person, it includes communication, empathy and commitment to persist towards others. Power is more personal attribute of authority to enforce obedience amongst others.
Social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven (1959) studies various aspects of power that has capability to influence followers. The different powers explored by them was grouped under six heads and was regarded as bases of power (Walumbwa, 2011). There are four sources of power that arises form virtue of their positions as legitimate power, reward power, coercive power and informational power; whereas personal sources of power are regarded as expert power and referent power. Legitimate is the power that arises from a person’s formal authority to make obedience and expect others to follow. Though this type of power can be unstable or unpredictable in nature as with losing of the title the power might be lost. This type of power disappears instantly by influence is due to position held rather than by a person’s self-capability. This type of power has limited scopes with rights to control extending to certain situations. Example of this type of power can be those with the Prime Minister, President or Monarch. Reward power is often exercised by giving out rewards as promotions, raises, opportunities, compliments and so on. The belief of this source of power proposes that there is a high chance of getting things done by others in case there is a reward attached (Dinh, 2014). This power is however considered not a strong base as leaders at lower levels might not have power over salary increase, perks, promotions of other benefits. This rewards provided needs to be perceived highly otherwise scope of power diminishes. Example of this type of power is manager giving perks to get a job done. Coercive power is one that is applied by force and can often lead to several challenges. This type of power can lead to resentment and dissatisfaction within people that it is applied to as it can be abused. Tools used for applying this type of power are punishments and threats. This type of power might be considered as the last resort of power as sometimes managers might threaten to fire someone or deny privileges, demotion. The examples for this type of power provides that by virtue of position someone might do so but justifications for the same cannot be adequately provided. Informational power is when others put someone in a powerful position. In this scope of power that a person possesses is because he has access to financial reports or confidential information within the organisation. In this age of globalisation, this form of power is regarded as a potent form of power as power is derived from having access to information. It also reflects capability to share, manipulate, withhold, conceal or distort such information, hence can be often used as a bargaining tool against anyone.
Personal sources of power can result in technocratic or impoverished leadership, for establishing as a true capable leader one needs robust sources of power. Expert power is one where one has skills and knowledge to provide judgments, understand situations and outperform others, then it is more likely that followers will listen. It is a value based leadership style where followers will look forward to lead in such areas. A leader in this case can expand rational thinking, decisiveness and confidence on subjects for maintaining and improving leadership skills. Referent power is one that arises from personal liking to respect a person by identifying a value. Most prominent example of this type of power is one exerted by celebrities, where they influence people to purchasing things. With this type of power, there arises large responsibilities and it can easily be abused. In this source of power a person without integrity might rise to power and alienate people for personal advantage.
Leadership models provide definitive paths for applying concepts pertaining to leadership. Two critical models discussed here are Leader-member exchange theory and skill based model of leadership. While both the models can be applied in organisation, each of them extend their point of view.
Leaders- member exchange theory is a relational approach in leadership with two-way dyadic relation amongst followers and leaders. The scope of this theory suggests that leaders needs to exchange in a transactional approach between followers. The theory has evolved from vertical dyad linkage (VDL) model that viewed transactional approach is a fair exchange in which leader one end provides guidance to work, advice, support and followers provides leaders with respect and commitment by task performance (Lee, 2008). Leader exercise relationship that is based on trust, emotions and respect that goes beyond employment scopes.
Figure 1: LMX Model
Application of this theory is known to promote positive employment experience leading to achievement of organizational goals and objectives, hence efficiency and effectiveness. When applied this model is known to have capabilities to replace predecessors (Pellegrini, 2010). Current development of this theory proposes emergence of vertical dyadic workplace influence with team performance. It is applied in team selection as leaders select apprenticeships with strong mental commitments to the leader. It proposes a win-win relationship amongst both parties that deeply engages team and its members for overall organisational growth and development. Example of LMX model is in its application in transformative leadership style or servant leadership style where there is high levels of emotional dependence.
Figure 2: Stages in LMX Model
Skill theory of leadership emerges from flaws in trait approaches with traits being fixed. Trait theory could not easily be applied on those who lacked the traits, hence new leaders had to acquire those traits to be successful (Gehring, 2007). Skill theory acts as a measure to fill in the gap whereby specific skills and abilities that make leaders effective are determined. Skill theory focuses on specific characteristic of leader hence is a leader-centric theory. There are two primary theories that emerges from skill approach namely, Katz three-skill approach and Mumford’s skill model for leadership (Pierro, 2013). Three-skill approach to leadership proposes three skills being integral to leadership as human, technical and conceptual skills. Human skills in leaders reflects capability to work with people, technical skills reflects ability in particular areas or activity of work, whereas conceptual skills is capability to work with lots of ideas and concepts. While all skills are integral for all leaders, there importance varies on organisational levels from upper to lower managerial levels.
A critical approach to skill model is five component of effective leadership, as individual attributes, competence, career experience, environmental influences and leadership outcomes. Attributes of leader is determined by way of ascertaining leadership competencies as influenced by leader’s experiences, attributes and environment. Most critical factor ascertained through skill theory of leadership is its importance of leadership performance on learned skills compared to traits. This theory expands scope that can be applied in leadership as innate abilities as cognitive ability, motivation remains included in the model. However, this model does not allow to predict ability that exclude competence. There are certain limitations to this model as it is in fuzzy line with trait model. The development of this model was influenced by traits. Moreover ability to learn new skills is embedded in biological traits. The model does not include factors as to why traits affect leadership. Critical example of leadership encompasses human skill or social judgmental skill acquiring by extrovert persons with empathy.
Analysis of two leadership models reflects various aspects regarding leadership. While applying French and Raven’s critical social power bases in leadership position, individual choices of drivers of power of influencer and characteristics of target might be determined. Divergent type of power form might be applied across diversified types of organisations (Mahsud, 2010). In formal organisation with vertical authority LMX theory might be applicable where leaders are expected to engage their followers to yield results. LMX theory exerts more of expert power, where leader’s posses capability of knowledge and skills. They are easily make followers listen to them hence influence a conditions for attainment of objective. The power of influencing agent, who is the leader is considered substantial as he selects his own team and engages them to strive towards goals. Characteristics of target, who are being influenced by the leader constitutes tremendous commitment, belief and faith in the leader. Followers or influenced group comprises of selected personnel by leader himself who have immense emotional dependence on the leader. In this perspective length of leader-follower relationship is long. They have deep association, belief and relationship that binds them towards a commitment with each other. Perceptions of people who observe leader-follower relationship might feel an integrated approach of both towards attainment of common goal (Northouse, 2015). As leader and followers work within a team, others might feel them to be greater team that have common objectives. A leader is able to accomplish goals more easily compared to others types of leadership. Organisational context discussed here might be referred to as a vertical type of organisation with vertical authority. Power is divided from upper to lower management levels where each leader has appointments his own team to get certain jobs done. The hierarchy of authority being vertical, leader enjoys more freedom to carry out responsibility in his desired manner. Followers in this case have more respect and regards for their leaders (Raven, 2008). They have more commitments which results in eventually higher productivity and efficiency compared to other forms leadership. Leaders in this case might be team leader, manager or supervisor and followers will be subordinates within the organisational hierarchy. Relationship with leaders and followers in this case is more direct compared to other leadership styles. Leader, in this case might have more direct authority over followers compared to other forms of leadership. Followers here regards their leaders as role models hence follow them. The relationship is based on more of an exchange relationship where leader extend capabilities and followers extend commitments. The development of this format for leadership happens more in stages where gradual development of relationship is established. It is more of a planned approach where followers are developed in such a manner that they abides by the leader. Therefore, leader’s here might be able to affect results or outcomes more effectively leading to productivity and I increase in efficiency.
Skill based theory exerts more varied types of power form. In this case leader learns techniques that can be applied to direct employees. Here a leader might impact expert power in some cases, reference power in others. In developing personal capabilities a leader might develop potential to impact on followers. But as leader learns new capabilities depending upon organisational hierarchy some skills might be acquired while some might be left out. A leader develops skills that is crucial to manage subordinates at a particular level within the organisation. The power of leader in this case though expert but might not be influential in nature. As leader might develop human capabilities to manage employees but might lack technical and conceptual capabilities. Therefore, leader cannot be said to have high powers or capabilities to influence followers. Characteristics of nature of followers in this case are subordinates who will take lead from their leaders. Followers are obedient in this case but might not be committed but they are bound to be deeply influenced to carry out the tasks according to directives given by their leaders. Followers in this case might be critical of the leader as he might have certain skills while lacking others. Leader in this case might prioritise certain traits that he considers important but that might not suffice followers need to respect or commit to the leader. There might be mental and emotional gaps existing which might lead to ineffectiveness in some form or other. Length of the leader follower relationship is build till and until leader keeps the position. The length of such relationship is fairly short with initiation point being the leader getting appointment to direct subordinates. Perception of others observing such leader follower relationship might be such that they are in a position to comment regarding the same. As leaders might acquire some skills compared to others there might be gaps existing in relationship with followers. Further relationship is not deep as it is not mandatory that leader appoints subordinates. Kind of organisation considered in this case might be formal one with vertical and horizontal authority of control (Riggio, 2008). Followers might regard their leaders as managers who issue directives for them to work, hence there is lower levels of engagement. Followers might also feel that the leaders are mere agents of upper management giving directives to them for attainment of organisational objectives. Critically evaluating perspectives from both styles of leadership it can be said that LMX offers a more committed style of leadership that is performance driven compared to skill based leadership.
Conclusion:
Analysis of pertinent models and perspectives governing leadership, various bases of power can be understood. Evaluating critical concepts pertaining to leadership and understanding conceptions forwarded by each one of them provides understanding relative to power and influence. Leader as described with various power bases in French and Raven model can be understood as a change agent with capabilities to influence. While in LMX theory, a leader is believed to bonding and relationship with followers, skill based theory is more generalized application of leadership. In LMX, leaders are believed to exercise expert power with their experience and knowledge. Followers give respect to leaders for their skills and knowledge hence follow them out of relationship or emotional bonding. Skill based theory proposes that an individual might become a leader through learned skills or techniques. It is more versatile power that is learned by means of position. Therefore, followers might respect and abide by leaders if they find that the leader possesses skills as human, technical or conceptual in nature. In this theory a leader might switch between expert power or referent power or informational power or reward power as the case might demand. Therefore, it is more dynamic in approach compared to other theories.
Reference:
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