Design Concepts in Architecture

Design is the most basic human creative activity. One could argue that Palaeolithic cave drawings were based on this fundamental human creative need. The word ‘design’ derives from the Italian word ‘disegno’, meaning ‘drawing of a work’. Many confuse the notion of ‘Design’ to ‘Art’. Design can well be seen in art, but as an independent subject it must be considered as entirely different. One of the first to distinguish this difference, were several British design historians, dating from 1977.
Design can be seen and experienced everywhere. Design can be a development progress or an object. Definition for the word design given by designer Richard Seymour is ‘making things better for people’.¹ Design expands so vastly, It can be seen in furniture, advertising, machinery, books, media, fashion, computers, food and in many other fields.
Design nowadays is a subject of university study, such as ‘graphic design’ and ‘industrial design’ etc. It has always been accepted that anyone who ‘created’ something, or made something look good, aesthetic or beautiful could be considered a ‘designer’. Even though most people believe that a good design is one that looks beautiful, this is not always the case. A good design is one which focuses mainly upon its intended function. A successful design is one that completely fulfils the needs of its intended purpose, ‘Form Follows Function’. A designer must be able to meet several points: aesthetical, artistic, theoretical, mechanical, organizational and functional.
The word ‘design’ holds much meaning and design paradoxes are endless, it would therefore be impossible to analyse them all. The focus of this review essay is the architectural area of design.
In early 1937, Czech philosopher, Jan Mukarovsky developed a model of five functions for architecture: the immediate, the historical, the personal, the social and the aesthetic’.
In the arena of Art and Architecture, Design is a basic principle that must be carried out through every piece of work. In this respect, ‘design’ is an idea, a concept, which is transferred from the individual’s mind on to canvas, paper, blue print etc.
In England (16th century) the term design was used under the sense of ‘plan from which something is to be made…a drawn sketch for an artwork’, but also s Bernhard Burdek said: ‘an object of applied arts;’
Design can be anything that stings ones imagination. Italian designer Giorgio Giugiano says: ‘there is nothing without design’.
As the 20th century approached new attitudes in Art made their appearance. New styles were discovered by different artistic experiments such as ‘Art Nouveau’, ‘Arts and Crafts’ ‘Art Deco’. These artistic trends and movements would encompass the styles referred to as the ‘ism’s of the period, for example; Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism and others. Some of these aforementioned areas had an impact in Architecture, but it must be noted that the Architectural field consisted of its own movements which rose within these decades.
Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Renaissance architects and artists would combine their knowledge in order to produce a building design which combined and encompassed both the beauty of Art, but also the power and discipline of Architecture.
The roots of Modern Art dates back to the 19th century. Artists were experimenting with their paintings and sculptures in order to find something different, something that could express better what the painter, sculptor saw or felt, but at the same time enabling the observer to experience the artwork himself through his personal emotions. Areas of the Modern Art movement will be further analysed in the forthcoming paragraphs and their connection with the architectural styles which were popular at that time. Even though the modern era in architecture consists of several other movements (Usonianism, Constructivism, Purism etc), the purpose of this review is to analyze the influences that Art had on Architecture during the 20th century.

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Within the first decade of the 20th century, the first movement in Modern Art, to make its appearance was Expressionism. Painters such as Vincent van Gogh would flatten their paintings using lines, exaggerating certain fragments of the painting, either by using bright colours or by just the simple and minimal black and white. This simplified way of painting would usually portray sceneries focusing not on the beauty as the public was use to, but the suffering, poverty and violence were the notions presented.
Parallel to Expressionism in Art, Expressionist Architecture started to develop. Most examples Can be found in Germany and a few other European countries. Similarly to artists trying to picture the cold truth of a human’s life without any essence of beauty, leading architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropins and Hans Poelzig developed poetical and dramatic designs influenced by natural forms which consisted of unusual shapes and massing. Manmade materials, such as, brick, steel, concrete and most importantly glass were key characteristics to this architectural style.
In the lithograph on the left, ‘Scream’, also known as ‘Shouting’, the notion of sadness , fear or even death have been pictured; the print consists only of lines, which all lead to the centre of the picture, to the most important part, the screaming figure. The facial characteristics of the human head are very minimal, and may remind one of a caricature or a cartoon; even though the face is some what ‘destroyed’ the person shouting, holding his head, with wide open eyes and mouth, gives one the impression of fear; as if ‘he’ was facing something that scared him. The figure itself is very thin , the minimal appearance of clothing and the skinny face, may be thought to be either an old woman or man, facing the time of death.
One of the buildings which has been placed under the title of Expressionist Architecture, is Hans Poelzig’s exhibition space and water tower building. This extraordinary design of its time, is located in the city of Poznan, in Poland and was completed in 1991. Throughout the building it is difficult to find any straight lines; curves and flowing shapes are what make up the Einstein Tower. It looks more like a poetic and romantic sculpture than a building for such a specific use. The steps leading up to the entrance, through the ‘body’ of the building with its dome like roof, reminds one of a naturally occurring organism such as a plant or an undersea creature.
In France, during the period 1907 to 1914, the leaders Picasso and Braque developed the movement of Cubism, which largely differs from Expressionism. Analytical Cubism, focused on two-dimensional, flat paintings which would picture an object by breaking it down into shapes. Lines, geometric forms and bright colours were a necessary characteristic. Synthetic Cubism derived from the method of Collage, synthesising, combining painting, incorporating pictures from magazine advertisements, cuttings and clippings of different materials to generate a complete piece of artwork.
As previously mentioned, Cubism was strongly associated with two-dimensional portraying. This motif in art also had an influence on architecture. Well analysed and synthesized architectural spaces, would remain in the usual two dimensions; architectural representations were based on the artistic era of the time. Closely related to Cubism is Abstract Art. Artwork now is not a matter of copying what appeared in front of one’s eyes, but something that one may call a piece of decoration. What the artist feel’s becomes art. During the First World War, a group of young artists, named Dada, made their presence. They found a way to express their protest to the war, through their abstract painting.
Picasso’s ‘Violin’, appears to be very confusing. By its title, one becomes familiar with what is portrayed. The painting illustrates a ‘destroyed’ musical instrument, broken/cut into pieces. With its curved shapes and brown colours it is easily understood. But what is fascinating about this piece of artwork is the way the artist has shaded each part of the violin, giving it a special significance. Even though the painting is portrayed on a canvas (two – dimensional), the hole picture seems to escape those boundaries, each part appears to stand out from the canvas.
‘Dada for me was a new beginning and a closure. In free Zurich where the newspapers can say what they want, where magazines were founded and poems against the war read out, here where there were no ration-cards and no ‘ersatz’, here we had the possibility of shouting out everything that was filling us fit to burst’. Richard Huelsenbeck.
During 1922 to 1924, when Dada began to lose their influence, Surrealism was introduced. Painters were creating dream like pictures. Within these paintings one fragment would blend and merge into another and depending on the angle in which one viewed the drawing, the picture on the canvas would ‘change’. The same object could have two or more uses within the painting.
Architecture has embraced most art movements and Surrealism was not be left out. As was analyzed in the previous paragraph, painting fragments, which had multiple uses, were one of the principles undertaken in this art style. Architects were incorporating two or more in some cases uses to a building, multiple approaches and embeddings.
Within this surrealist painting of Dali, different elements accommodated a different story; and in some cases may have more than one ‘role’. In the centre of the painting , a female face appears, her eyes are also seashells on the beach, her forehead and nose form a fruit bowl full of pears; on her left hand side there is a dark tunnel with a river, whereas on the left side of the painting, there is mountain with sea waves running down towards the females face. The mountain to the right acts as a dogs head and what seems to be its collar is a bridge; many other such elements are hidden within this painting.
These two multi-storey buildings, appear to be dancing. The male (cylindrically shaped building on the right), Fred, is standing next to Ginger (female). Fred seems to be reaching out his right arm to his ‘dancing partner’. This concrete structure, relates to the strong nature of a male. On the other hand, Ginger, as a ‘woman’, constructed from glass, appears more fragile, just as a woman can be elegant and delicate.
Advertisements, comic books, magazines, posters, movies and everything else which portrayed some sort of a commercial image came in fashion; art was now called Pop Art. Although many believe that Pop Art was discovered in America, continuing from the movement of Abstract Expressionism in the 1930’s, Pop Art was actually first seen in London. Leader and ‘inventor’ of this movement was English painter and Collage artist Richard Hamilton. ‘Often called the intellectual father of Pop Art.’
The Abstract era continues to grow in the United States and in Europe. Op Art, also known as Optical Art is appearing. In the period of the 60’s and the 70’s, vibration and optical illusions created either by monochrome, images or outstandingly bright coloured pictures consisting of basic geometric shapes were this movements principles.
Similarly to optical illusions in Op Art, illusions of such type can be found within the world of architecture; maybe this is not an era called ‘Op Architecture’ but defiantly architects have been inspired from this particular artistic style;
Soon after came minimalism, with Kenneth Noland, Larry Poons and others. Minimalism consisted of simple colours and solid shapes based on geometric forms. Artists would reduce as much of the elements as possible within their work in order for it to appear simple but yet again well worked. Such fragments would be colours, textures and volumes.
Architect Mies van der Rohe, adopted the so well know phrase ‘les is more’, by developing building designs which consisted of open plan layouts, minimal exteriors etc. Minimalism and Architecture is still a movement that continues to grow. Minimalist architecture comprising of simple volumes and clear lines, which sometimes look very similar to solid geometric shapes, is a style of architecture found all around us.
Oil, water colour, charcoal, pen and ink, sculptures and photography are some of the art forms that can be found within the Fine Art department. There are different techniques in which an artist can experiment and develop in order to produce what might be a masterpiece. The French word ‘coller’ meaning glue is the term used do describes one of those methods. The assembly of different materials, which create a new image, is else known as ‘Collage’. One of the first examples that can be related to this motif was found in China and dates from 200 BC, during the invention of paper. It was not until many decades later, in the era of Modern Art and during the Analytical Cubism phase, when Collage was formally introduced. Pablo Picasso and George Braque were the first to bring out the glamour of this technique in the year 1906-07. George Braque was the ‘inventor’ of collage in Modern Art. He mostly applied this technique on his charcoal drawings. One of the earliest most famous collages was Picasso’s ‘Guitar, Sheet Music and Glass’. By autumn 1912 it was apparent that Picasso was very interested in the three-dimensional construction of a collage.
As in Picasso’s ‘Violin’ (pg.4) for one to understand what is portrayed, one should be familiar with the object in question; in this case ‘Guitar, Music sheet and Glass’ constructed in September 1912, follows the same principle. The rear surface of the collage appears to be a section of flowery wall paper; the shapes in which the other fragments of the collage are cut are very simple and one could say effortless; but the way in which they are arranged together gives the observer a clear impression of the subject. On the left hand side of the collage the body of the guitar is formed from a wood-like cut-out. The blue rectangle next to it reminds us or the neck of the guitar, and below this the white circle resembles the sound hole. A black cut out of a semicircle forms the base. To the right are strips of sheet music and below a newspaper cutting and one of Picassos sketches picturing an abstract view of a wine glass, are the fragments which are used in order to compete the ‘Guitar, Music sheet and Glass’ collage.
Tatlin’s assembly on the left is a three-dimensional abstract construction. This creates the feeling of anger or fear and is due largely to the materials chosen. Canvas or board paper are replaced by an old wooden board. Industrial materials replace paper cut-outs which are secured by screws instead of glue. The artist, in this case, is not interested in a clean finish, but creating a rougher and more textured result which all add to its beauty.
The discovery that the very distinction between flat and volumetric was no longer absolute, that through a process of unprecedented spatial semantic complexity, something deeply unsettling was happening to art.?
Picasso started to experiment with his papier coller’s adding other materials which had a special significance. Cardboard, wood, metal and other textiles were incorporated within his Cubist artworks which were soon characterized as surrealist; In the years to come, several more artists, such as, Vladimir Tatlin, Varvara Stepanova and Alexandr Rodchenko, were producing collages. Newspapers, advertisement strips, magazine parts, photographs were some of the materials used.
During the First World War, a young group of artists known as Dada were introduced, and soon became very popular. Dada attempted, in their own artistic way, to protest against what was happening to the world around them. The Dada ‘movement’ was controversial at the time. They introduced a new art form, the art of expressing, in a more literal way, their thoughts about the ‘disaster’ of the Great War. Dada meaning Hobby – Horse in French, consisted of six members. Hugo Ball, his lover Emmy Hennings, Tristan Tzara, Hans Richter, Marcel Janco and Hans Arp. The group were based in Switzerland and the Dada era was born in 1916 in the city of Zurich.
Dadaism did not only produce drawings or paintings; it was an era where all visual and intellectual arts were combined together. They used drawings, paintings, sculptures and poetry. It combined artistic, philosophical, music and political aspects. Hugo Ball would take poems apart and place the words in a random sequence. This ‘recycling words’ technique and later on the photomontages and collages produced by the Dada group, would make one think that they were not so much inventors but recyclers;
On the other hand another member of the group, Hans Arp was concentrating on the visual representation of their protest. Through collages and reliefs he was expressing the need of change. Within those collages, elements of wood, screws and paper can be found. The construction of those art works, were based on the ‘law of change’ as Arp would say. Coming back to the motif of three-dimensional collages – reliefs (page 8, Picasso), the Dada reliefs made this motif obvious. The shape in which the elements of the reliefs were cut was well thought, planned and processed. Sketched beforehand and placed exactly in order to complete the artwork. Usually curved and orientated in a ‘natural like’ way would be remeniscent of organic cultures and the era of Impressionism.
‘We do not wish to imitate nature; we do not wish t reproduce. We want to produce. We want to produce the way a plant produces its fruit, not depict. We want to produce directly, not indirectly. Since there is not a trace of abstraction in this art we call it concrete art.’
First collages created by Hans Arp were very minimal and simple. One could say that little effort had gone into creating them.
Dada’s reliefs are some what different to what one has seen through the history of collage. Shapes cut out from wood in natural forms are stuck one on top of the other. This technique could remind one of the three-dimensional construction of collages during the period of 1912-14 (pg.8). But in the reliefs on the left, an abstract assembly consisting of organic shaped, wooden fragments , painted in pastel colours, give the impression of a playful scene. Maybe one from the deep oceans or a field covered with flowers;
Moving away form the notion of three-dimensional construction, Dada’s work also consists of papier colle’s; ‘Rectangles arranged according to the Laws of Change’, is one of dada’s paper collages; squares and rectangles in two shades of blue are cut and randomly placed on the rear (blue) surface of the collage. No right angles appear anywhere in this piece of artwork, nor in the position in which the paper fragments are placed on the board, nor in the way the elements are cut.
Arp was always pleased to work and create art with other artists. In 1916 Arp invented the ‘Fatagaga’ pictures. Fatagaga was a word which derived from the first syllables of the sentence: Fabrication de Tableaux garantis gazometriques, meaning: production of guaranteed gasometric pictures. Based on this new term, Arp and other artists created the i-drawings. The group continued to express their compassion to the sufferings of the public, but this time their collages, or as they called them, photomontages, were not so ‘simple’ looking. Dada brought photographs in the papier colle’s, which pictured human bodies with different heads or objects placed on their forehead in combination with written illustrations, suggesting in their way the political and social exasperation towards the world.
With Analytical Cubism, art opened its doors to papier colle, the construction and design of collages. Dada introduced that a collage did not only have to consist of paper and glue, but it could incorporate other materials as well, (wood, photographs, paint etc).
Max Ernst said: I had to admit that in most of my collages there was no use for glue; that I am not responsible for the term collage;
As the 1920’s entered Dada collages formed a big change; collages where now consisting if geometric shapes, well processed and cut. The ‘i-picture’ on the left, is one of Arp’s i-drawings. Rectangles and squares with sharp lines and right angles are places adjacent one to the other; in contrary to the ‘Rectangles arranged according to the Laws of Change’ (pg.11), this collage looks more like a collage an architect would create; well planned and placed fragments in basic colours. It’s one of the first times where one sees the illustrations of text within Dada pa co. The letter ‘i’ is placed in the centre of the collage catching ones attention, from the first glance.
‘The Art Critic’ (image on the left), moves away from the graphic collages that Dada were concentrating on until the 1920’s. The illustrated bright orange rear surface of the collage, gives a new feeling to the whole picture; human forms are introduced with satiric elements. The man body is a different collage fragment to the ‘out of scale’ head; facial characteristics are exaggerated by the added sketches/doodles representing eyes, lips teeth etc. Part of a shoe on the forehead of the ‘Frankenstein’s man and a large pen in his right hand, weapon like, add to the style of the collage. On the right a male figure appears through the newspaper cutting on a black and white photograph. A woman looks stunned by the large figure in the centre of the collage. Additional fragments taken from magazines are added to the whole creating a troublesome image.
Even though collages and photomontages started to disappear during the surrealist era in Art, there are a few examples for such stylistic papier colles. Max Ernst was one of the most popular surrealist painters in the 1920’s. Within his works, numerous collages can be found. By cutting and reorganising sentimental illustrations, surreal collages would make their appearance. Other artists, such as Dali were strongly connected with surrealist collages Dali would play with the observer. He did this in the way in which the fragment of his collages where placed together, he would confuse the observer about what was being viewed, where as what was actually being portrayed was different to what the eye would see.
Dali’s playful scene of brightly coloured elements consists of both painting and collage; this technique has been seen before with Picasso’s ‘Guitar, Music Sheet and Glass’ collage (pg. ). The rear surface of the ‘Accommodations of Desire’ collage, is painted; this would be separate to the lion heads which are glued on. The collage consists of nine incomplete lions heads and is violent in its suggestions. In the top centre of the collage a sexual scene is suggested, with a naked women and a man standing close to her.
Photomontage did not make its official appearance till the First World War and the Dada movement, but there are many examples in the past, dating back as far as the Victorian era to prove that this technique was seen before. German word ‘Montage’ means ‘fitting’, and explains exactly what a photomontage is, the ‘fitting’ of multiple pictures/photographs together and creating a new image. Million Fox Talbot was one of the people associated with the invention of photography. He would experimented with his photographs, as any individual would when trying to invite something now, such as photography; by placing tree leafs of the photographic plates, it would remind of some sort of photomontage; In those days, without the invention of photographic paper, the photographic plates were reused and must have be well cleaned in order for the next photograph to be taken. By not cleaning the plates whilst taking a new photo, the result would look as if one image had been placed on the other. In this way, photomontage was beginning to appear. In this way they would experiment with multiple plates and effects. During the Victorian period, several examples of such experiments can be found. One of the most striking of its time, were the postcards portraying a human body with a different head.
With the revival of Pop Art collages and photomontages were brought back to file. ‘Pop Art Daddy’, Richard Hamilton was strongly associated with those art motifs. A collage made from photographs or photograph parts is called a photomontage. At the time, for many people Pop Art was difficult era to be understood. The images portrayed in the Pop Art movement were generally seen in other context and individuals had problems embracing the ‘new’ art form.
In 1957 Hamilton defined Pop art as: ‘Popular (designed for a mass audience), Transient (short-term solution), Expendable (easily forgotten), Low cost, Mass production, Young (aimed at youth), Witty, Sexy, Gimmicky, Glamorous and Big business’.
But Richard Hamilton found different ways in which he engaged the public with his art. His influence of Abstract Art was obvious in his works, which mostly consisted of collages and photomontages. The images used in order for him to produce a collage would have often been seen in other artistic works in the past; but Hamilton would manipulate them and make look unique. One of the first examples in Pop Art and Hamilton’s most famous collage / photomontage is ‘Just what makes Today’s Homes so Different, so Appealing’.
In August 1956, an art exhibition opened it’s doors to the public. The exhibition hearing after the name ‘This is tomorrow’, took place in the Whitechapel Art Gallery, in London. The aim of this exhibit was o present new ideas to the public rather to a certain group of people. These ‘new ideas’ exhibited would accommodate new, exiting and ‘futuristic’ aspects which were introduced in the everyday life of an individual. For example aspects of Cinema, Comic books, Pop music, Science fiction and even the unforgettable, sexy Merlin Monroe were present; The exhibition was a space surrounded with playful imagery, music and even some shocking aspects which would make the public wonder about what ‘Tomorrow’ would bring to their life’s;
Richard Hamilton’s collage ‘Just what makes Today’s Homes so Different, so Appealing’, was created for the purposes of advertising posters and catalogue for the exhibition. Even though the artwork, consisting if collage and photomontage was only creating for commercial use, it was one of which made the British Artist famous;
As mentioned in the side text, Richard Hamilton would ‘recycle’ work of others, or imagery seen elsewhere; this is quite predictable, as collage can be alternatively described as a way of ‘recycling’ imagery, text and photographs from other sources; but in this particular example of the collage pictured above [‘Just what makes Today’s Homes so Different, so Appealing’ ], the title itself is reused; the original quat derives from an advert starting: ” just what is it that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing? Open planning of course – and a bold use of colour.” all components of the collage are taken from popular 1960’s adverts;
The rear surface of the collage had been originally seen in the advert for Armstrong floors company floor surface types; the particular image was found in the ‘Ladies Home Journal’. Secondly, the young semi naked male, pictured holding a tennis racket, is the famous Irwin ‘Zabo’ Koszewski, body builder. [photograph taken from Tomorrow’s Man magazine]. The woman sitting on the sofa at the rear right side of the artwork is believed to be artist Jo Bear. Opposite, on the left side, the element of the staircase accommodating a young female cleaner, was taken from the advertisement of the new, at the time, ‘Constellation’ model of a hover. The painting / picture, which is hanging on the rear wall if the interior pictured in the collage, ‘Young Romance’, is part of an advert in ‘Young Love’. Below there is a television; produced be the Stromberg – Carson company (1955). But not all the element accommodated within this collage are exactly ‘cut and pasted’ in order to create this ‘Pop’ image; Richard Hamilton has modified certain parts, which without any hesitation contain a ‘secrete’ meaning within them; in order to make this more clear, the ‘rug’, behind the young bodybuilder is actually a blown up image of the Whitley Bay Beach crowed; lastly on the ceiling of the interior, the image of the earth emerges; most probably this photograph is taken from the ‘Life Magazine’ [September 1955 edition].
There may be different meanings hiding in this collage. But my personal view ion this artwork, is based on the promotion of the ‘perfect home and family’. During the period of the 1960’s all was based on the visual aspects of life, new elements in the entertainment field of the public culture were been modified and everything was surrounding the ‘new’ – ‘popular’ and ‘exiting’; cinema, magazines with shocking playful and colourful imagery were incorporated in peoples daily routines;
Based on the collage ‘Just what makes Today’s Homes so Different, so Appealing’ , I believe that the artist is trying to portray the ‘Perfect couple’. A young , hansom, muscular male, with a sexy, beautiful woman by his side; elements of taking care if the physical body condition of both parties are suggested through the element of the tennis racket;
Now there is the opportunity for the female to be the lady of the house; economical changes are suggested; now cleaners can be hired to keep the house in it’s perfect / clean condition and women can start taking care of themselves.
Photographs were a major inspiration for Hamilton works; elements of advertising, film, photography, fashion, music, style, mass media, TV etc were always precent in his work. During the 60’s R.Hamilton’s works took on a more domestic feel. He was portraying interior spaces which were very similar to the scene of a film set. Some would characterise his work ironic, but for Hamilton that was not the case. By applying in his work imagery seen in the wider public and mass media environment, he addressed a problem which the ‘outside’ world was facing and at the same time he would picture its possible solution.
Hamilton explained in 1968: ‘One wasn’t just concerned with a car and the idea of speed but [with] the way it was presented o us in the mass media… presenting a glamorous object by all the devices that glamorous advertising can add’. The Pop paintings are anthologies of the mechanics of visualisation.
Maybe it is not only about the entrainment and the economical but also about the political changes taking place at the time; women are becoming more important and have a say in different important matters; every home ‘should’ accommodate the newest designs of furniture and electrical facilities; (TV, Hoover, Tape recorder)
The ‘perfect home’ sheltering the ‘perfect couple’ The images of the earth on the ceiling of the interior may suggest that even in such a house, with all it’s fashionable and great conditions, it is actually what everyone feels within it; our house is our world;
American, visual artist, Christian Marclay, concentrates on exploring the connections that may exist between music, sound and photography. He transforms sound into visual and physical form; this is represented by video, photography, sculpture etc.
One of Christian Marclay’s projects was the Body Mix Series (1991). The project consisted of several album covers, which were collaged in such a way, in which a whole new image immerged through the ‘stitched together’ pictures. One of those Frankenstein images, named ‘Doorsiana’, consisted of six different covers, one of which was the face of Jim Morrison and Diana Ross’s left arm, in connection with several other albums.
Seliger: It seems that from the start your work has always had a lot to do with collage, both in performance and with the objects.
Marclay: Yes. I’ve always used found objects, images and sounds, and collaged them together, and tried to create something new and different with what was available. To be