Cells are the building blocks of all living things. The anatomy of cells includes the simple structures like cytoplasm that is situated outside the nucleus and contains other organelles. The cell is also made up of the nucleus which is the biggest organelle in the cell. Other organelles that make up the cell structure include Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, centrioles, cilia and flagella
There are two types of cells and they include the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The difference between these two types of cells is that eukaryotes contain the nucleus but the prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. The cells can further be divided into four groups that include somatic, gamete, germ and finally the stem cells
Tissues are formed from cells of the same morphology, function as well as the extracellular matrix. Some examples of the tissues include cartilage, bone and the muscles. There anatomy and physiology is unique to each tissue like the bone for example and the blood tissue. The blood tissue is made up of different blood cells like the red blood cells, white blood cells and the platelets. The bone tissue on the other hand is made up of the osteoblasts.
It is the cells that differentiates along different cell lines to give rise to different tissues. The cells has a nucleus and other organelles that work together to bring about the desired outcome of growth and development. The function of the nucleus is to store DNA and then later transcribe it to RNA which then exits via pores of the nuclear membrane. Organelles include mitochondria that are used in the production of energy for cell division. Ribosomes on the other hand are used to synthesise proteins. Lysosomes contain lytic enzymes that breakdown large macromolecules. The Golgi bodies are used in the packaging of proteins as well as lipids into different vesicles that are later transported in the body
Both the cells and the tissues are related to all the systems in the body. This is because the cells of the same morphology and function gang up to form tissues which also progressively make up the body system. The cells are therefore related to other systems since they are the foundations without which there would be no systems in the body
Pathophysiology refers to cellular changes due to injury in the cells. One such injury is hypoxia where less oxygen is available to the cells. Injury to the cells also cause inflammation of the cells
The defence and response to hypoxia include the cell resorting to anaerobic metabolism. Inflammatory response is the common response and it involves accumulation of nutrients, fluids, clotting agents and large numbers of neutrophils at the damaged site. All this is due to mediators like histamine that attract all this elements at the injured sites
There are different drugs for treating cellular injury and they include diclofenac, Diflunisal, Indomethacin, ketoprofen. The contraindications for the above drugs is quite diverse and depends on the type of drug used. Side effects of diclofenac are stuffy nose and pain and swelling in some parts of the body Ibuprofen and diclofenac interacts badly and should not be used with diclofenac as it worsens side effects.
Morphological changes usually follow cellular injury and they include cell death, pyknosis, karyolysis, karyorrhexis as well as cytoplasmic vacuolation and nuclear chromatin clumping
There are different types of trauma in the cells and tissues and they depend on the cause of injury. The most common ones however include physical trauma, biological, nutritional and finally the immunological trauma
The nursing interventions and planning services following injury to the cells is to ensure effective supply of oxygen, maintaining adequate nutrients and then fluid replacement so as to sustain the depleted volume
The anatomy of the integumentary system is quite complex. It basically revolves around the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, hair, nails, sudoriferous glands, sebaceous glands and finally the ceruminous glands. Ceruminous glands are only found in the dermis of the ear and produce cerumen that protects invasion of the ear by pathogens. Sebaceous glands are found in dermis of the skin and produce sebum that acts as a waterproof agent and increases elasticity of the skin on the surface. Sudoriferous glands are of two types: eccrine and apocrine sweat glands. They are found in dermis of the skin .Apocrine glands at puberty produce thick, oily liquid consumed by bacteria. Eccrine gland on the other hand cools the body temperature by evaporating and cooling. Nails are accessory organs and their function is to protect end of digits and for scrapping as well. Hair are also accessory organs that protect the body against UV radiations. Finally, the hypodermis, dermis and epidermis are just layers of the skin with different structures specialised for different functions
The physiology of the integumentary system generally includes keratinization, temperature homeostasis, Vitamin D synthesis, protection, skin colour, cutaneous sensation and excretion. The eccrine sudoriferous glands of the skin excrete waste products out of the body. In addition, it also excretes alcohol from the body as well. The skin usually assists the body sense changes in the external environments through picking signals for touch, pressure, vibration, temperature and finally pain. This is possible due to lamellar corpuscles that sense pressure and vibration of the skin. Integumentary system also defines colour of the skin through melanin, carotene and haemoglobin. The skin also offer protection to other organs from pathogens, mechanical damage and finally the UV lights. The skin also contains 7-dehdrocholesterol that upon striking by UV radiations, produces vitamin D3 which assists in absorption of calcium from bones. The skin is responsible for homeostasis whereby during hyperthermia, it sweats and lead to vasodilation while during hypothermia, the raise is able to raise body temperature by contraction of erector Pilli muscles and through vasoconstrictions.
The integumentary system relates with the nervous system. This is because the integumentary system has millions of different nerves that respond to changes in the external environment like heat, pain and pressure.
The skin at some time is bound to different disorders and they include vitiligo. This is a condition in which there are sudden appearance of white patches on the skin. Mongolian spots or melisma is another skin disorder and it involves the overproduction of melanin. Albinism is another condition and it involves disorders with the production of melanin .It may also be due to Melanocytes lack of tryosinase. Rashes are also common disorders and are caused by heat, diaper irritation and drug induced reactions
The skin is a defence mechanism and it protects against infection by forming a barrier to the entry of any organism. The skin also has several cells which upon contact with a pathogen, they produce antibodies that act contrary to the pathogen and it destroys the pathogen.
No drug can stop the vitiligo process but some drugs when used with therapies can restore the skin tone. Such drugs include psoralen when used with light therapies. For contraindications, it is advisable to use ointments that contain tacrolimus pimecrolimus for people who have small areas of depigmentation. The side effects of psoralen is nausea, itching and redness. Psoralen should not be used with other over the counter drugs as they react to produce undesirable effects. Contraindications is that psoralen should not be used to people with hepatic impairments, hypersensitivity and the photosensitivity disorders.
The degenerative changes in the skin includes thinning, drying, wrinkling, and finally uneven pigmentation. Changes in the hair as well loss of fluid and electrolyte balance are common and finally diminished antigenic responses.
There are different types of trauma in relation to the integumentary system and they include lacerations, puncture, contusion, abscess, avulsion and finally abrasion that is caused by friction and shear forces.
The nursing interventions and planning services in this case of impaired skin integrity and inflammation include examining the skin in general circumstances, instructing the patient not to pinch or scratch the skin area and keep the skin moist as possible. Formation of scales can also be reduced through the use of bath oil.
The anatomy of bones can be explained in different ways. One is on the basis of shape where we have long, short, flat, irregular and the sesamoid bones. The sesamoid bones are those that are embedded within a tendon while irregular bones are those that do not fall into any category. There are also different types of bone tissues that include cortical or compact bones and the cancellous or the spongy bones. Cortical bones provide structural support. The bone tissue has layers called the periosteum and the endosteum. The endosteum lines the inner surface of the bones while the periosteum is on the outside. The bones also have bone marrow that is found inside the bones and is important in our immune system
A joint is a place where the bones meet. They are characterised by meniscus, patella, tibia which is a shin bone and the femur that is the thighbone. There is also the synovial fluid and the bursas that help cushion friction in the joint. Tendons also connect muscles to the bones and ligaments that link up different bones. The synovial membrane on the other hand secretes the synovial fluid and then the cartilages that reduce friction movement within the joints.
Each of the muscles is made up of the, skeletal muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue and the blood and the vascular tissue.
The primary function of the musculoskeletal system is supporting the body, allowing movement and then protecting vital organs of the body. This system is made up of bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints and different connective tissues that support and hold tissues and organs together. Besides, the skeleton serves as a store for calcium and phosphorous. The skeleton also has components of the hematopoietic system as well as fat storage. These components are found in the bone marrow. To facilitate movement, many bone are linked by articulating joints. Cartilage on the other hand prevents friction as the muscles contract to move bones
Musculoskeletal system is already a combination of two systems that include the skeletal and the muscular systems. The shape of the body is defined by the different bones and cartilage which make up the skeletal system. The movement of the body on the other hand is due to muscle contraction and this makes up the muscular system.
Diseases that attack the bones are achondroplasia, osteoporosis, osteomyelitis and the Paget diseases. During diagnosis, it is very key to consider both the age and the location of the tumour. Diseases of the joints include inflammatory and non-inflammatory arthritis with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis being the most common. Achondroplasia is a genetic disease that cause dwarfism while osteoporosis is where the bones has holes due to insufficient calcium. Osteomyelitis is the inflammation of the bones due to different factors like bacterial infection
The musculoskeletal system always protects itself from infection from the multiple cells that are found in the bone marrow. The cells produce antibodies that destroy different pathogens. Besides, the cells also rapidly to give rise to new bones to replenish the ones that get vulnerable to infection.
For achondroplasia, the current medication is the use of somatropin which is a recombinant human growth hormone. For arthritis the current medication include Analgesics, Non steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, Counterirritants and the Disease modifying antirheumatic drugs. For osteomyelitis, Amoxicillin, Ciprofloxacin and levoflaxin is used. In case the patient does not respond, then surgery is carried out. Headache and muscle pains are the common side effects of the medication. Alcohol and birth control pills should not be used at the same time with somatropin as it worsens the situation.
The degenerative changes that take place in the bones are called Osteoarthritis and it affects the joints. The change comes with degeneration of the cartilage and it causes pain and swelling. It may lead to osteophytes or the bone spurs
The most common types of trauma in the musculoskeletal system include contusions, strains and sprains. A sprain is stretch or tear of the ligament which is the substance that connects different bones and it can either be grade 1 sprain, grade 2 sprain or grade 3 sprain. Strain refers to the injury to the muscle or tendons which might be partial or complete tear. Most commonly occurs during sports like wrestling. A contusion on the other hand is a bruise that is caused by direct blow or repeated blows thus there is crushing of the muscle fibres but the skin does not break. Other types of injuries include Tendinitis and bursitis
For sprains, the nursing intervention includes examining through x rays and then treat using physical therapy exercises or RICE. The Nursing interventions are the same except there is planning for rest, ice, compression and elevation as well
The nervous system is made up of the central and the peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system is further made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is found on the outside of the Central nervous system and is made up of different nerves. The PNS is further divided into somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is further divided into sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is made up of the sympathetic chain, collateral ganglia and the adrenal medulla
The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions like awareness, motion, sensation, thoughts, speech and finally memory. The spinal cord on the other hand carry signals back and forth between the brain and the nerves of the entire body. The peripheral nervous system is divided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system controls body movements that are under our control such as walking. The autonomic nervous system on the other hand control involuntary actions like breathing and digestion. The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system whereby the sympathetic nervous system prepare the body for actions that need strength and awareness that lead to fear, anger, excitement and embarrassments. Or the fight and flight response. It makes the heart to beat faster.
Related systems/ how
The systems that are related to the nervous system is the integumentary nervous system. This is due to the fact that the integumentary system is innervated by millions of nerves that send signals to the central nervous system with response to the external environment.
The most common pathophysiology of the nervous system is the meningitis. It is mostly caused by the bacteria Neisseria meningitides that surpass the blood brain barrier. It is characterized by severe headaches.
The defence and immune response in the nervous system is through the innate immune system where there is production of antibodies that act against the pathogen or the foreign substance.
Meningitis is generally treated by antibiotics since it is caused by bacteria. The most common class of antibiotics used are called cephalosporin especially claforan and the rocephin. For contraindications, it is advisable that members who have had contact with patents prevent themselves since some forms of meningitis are very contagious. Vomiting, nausea, diarrhoea and rash are the side effects of cephalosporin and they react with Theracrys and therefore should not be used together. Contraindications include not using cephalosporin’s when one is allergic to them.
Degenerative changes in the nervous system include slow response to senses and therefore there is delayed relay of information between different neurons. This therefore limits response to different stimuli like touch and pain.
In the nervous system, there are different types of injuries and they include spinal cord injury, the traumatic brain injury, stroke and finally the brain cancer. SCI and the TBI commonly affects young children especially as a result of motor accidents or violent conduct. Brain tumours can however occur in all ages
The nursing interventions for meningitis involves laboratory diagnosis by examining the cerebrospinal fluid under the microscope to check for the bacteria Neisseria meningitides. The nursing care plan in this case is aimed at achieving enough cerebral tissue perfusion by reducing ICP, maintaining the normal body temperature, protecting against injury, enhancing coping measures, accurate perception of the stimuli from the environment stimuli and restoring normal cognitive functions and prevention of complications
Sensory – General Endocrine
The endocrine system is basically made up of the following components: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pineal body, reproductive glands and finally the pancreas.
The pituitary gland produce Adrenocorticotropic hormone and the thyroid stimulating hormone. These hormones stimulate the adrenal cortex to carry out its functions. The adrenal glands on the other hand produce epinephrine, norepinephrine and mineralocorticoids, glucorticoids and the androgens. These hormones are responsible for regulating fight and flight responses. Lastly it is the thyroid gland that produce thyroid hormone as well as calcitonin. These particular hormones regulate metabolic rate as well as growth
The endocrine system is needed everywhere in the body and as a result, it has to be transported throughout the body. This is only possible by the circulatory system. This therefore means that the endocrine system works or is related to the circulatory system.
The pathophysiology of the endocrine system can generally be classified into hyper function of the endocrine glands, hypofunction of the endocrine glands and dysfunction of the endocrine glands. A typical example is the hyperthyroidism where the thyroid gland is overworking or is producing more hormone than that is needed.
It is the innate immune system that is responsible for protecting itself against invasion by foreign agents. This involves the production of antibodies that work against the pathogens
Hyperthyroidism is treated through radioactive iodine, Anti-thyroid medications, beta blockers and surgery. Metallic taste in the mouth and nausea are the common side effects. Iodine supplements should not be used when on medication as there would be ineffective results.
Degenerative changes that take place in the endocrine system include decrease in hormones like estrogen, testosterone and the growth hormone. Melatonin also reduce significantly. However, there are some hormones that increase and they include FSH, luteinizing hormone, Norepinephrine, epinephrine and the parathyroid hormone
There are different types of traumas in the endocrine system and it depends on the gland that is affected. Some of the injuries include hypothalamus, gonads and the pancreas injuries.
For hyperthyroidism, nursing interventions include: provide emotional support to the family, encourage family and client to express feelings, administer prescribed medications.
The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart, the blood vessels and the blood. It is the heart that forms the centre of the cardiovascular system that pumps blood throughout the body. The cardiovascular system has blood vessels like veins and arteries as well as capillaries. There are valves that are located between atria’s and ventricles and their function is to ensure that blood flows in one direction alone
The hearts forms the centre of the cardiovascular system and it pumps blood to the rest of the body. It has four chambers, 2 atria and 2 ventricles. The atria receive blood from the body and the ventricles pump blood to the system. Valves are in between the atria and ventricles just to ensure that blood flows in one direction. The cardiovascular system also has blood and a normal human being has 4.5-5 litres of blood. Blood has other components like white blood cells and red blood cells and the function of blood is to supply oxygen and nutrients to the body parts. There are also the blood vessels like the arteries that branch to arterioles where nutrients and wastes are exchanged. Capillaries unite to form venules which form the veins. Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart
The cardiovascular system is closely related to the respiratory system. This is because blood moves from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and back then to the rest of the body
The cardiovascular system is affected by the following diseases: Coronary artery disease, Valve disease, Heart failure, Arrhythmia, ion disbalance, Hypertension and finally oedema.
Defence and Immune Responses
In the heart, it is the innate immune system that plays a critical role in defence through the lymphocytes. They are found within the pericardium. The lymphocytes stimulate production of cytokines that cause inflammation and neutrophils are produced. The affected site is now degenerated by the neutrophils.
There are several medications for heart conditions and they include ACE inhibitors that widen arteries and the Aldosterone inhibitors that ease swelling. Angiotensin ii receptor blockers lower blood pressure while the beta blockers block the effects of adrenaline while calcium blockers treat chest pains. Dizziness, confusion and severe vomiting are the side effects. They should not be used with potassium supplements as they raise the level of this salts in the blood.
Degenerative changes that take place in the cardiovascular system include heart working harder to maintain oxygen levels in the body, accumulation of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries and decreased abilities to replace fluids that are lost when breathing. Finally, there are diminished cardiac reserve.
Blunt injury is the most common type of trauma and it usually arise due to the blow to the chest that bruises the muscles of the heart therefore tearing the walls of the hearts and damaging the valves
The interventions in this case include recording intake and output. For patients with increased preload, limit of fluids and sodium as ordered. Fluid intake including the IV line is closely monitored and maintaining fluid restriction if ordered. Administer medications as prescribed and then noting the effect of toxicity of any. The results of the EKG and chest X-ray are reviewed. Laboratory data should also be closely monitored.
Anatomy
The lymphatic system is made up of five major components that include vessels like arteries and veins. The lymphatic system also has nodes and the tonsils that are found around the throat. Finally there is the thymus that is found in the chest and the spleen
The spleen is the largest organ of the lymphatic system and it process blood and removing dead or defective red blood cells. It also produce red blood cells in the foetus. The thymus is located above the heart and it is the site where T-cells that destroy pathogens mature and become more specialized
The lymphatic system is related to the circulatory system because they deliver nutrients, oxygen and other hormones from blood to cells.
The most common disease of the lymphatic system is the Lymphadenopathy whereby the lymph nodes are enlarged due to the blockage of the lymph nodes as well as cancers that affect the lymphatic system. Another infection is lymphoma which is a type of cancer that attacks the lymph nodes. Castleman and lymphangiomatosis are the other types of diseases that affect the lymphatic system
The lymphatic system has cells known as lymphocytes that stimulate production of cytokines that mediate inflammation. After which, the neutrophils produced at the inflamed site causes degeneration of the damaged site.
The most common form of medication for swollen lymph nodes is the use of antibiotics. However, if the infection is due to HIV, then the patient will receive special treatment for the case. Ibuprofen and acetaminophen are used. Dizziness, ringing in the eyes are the side effects and they react with aspirin especially after taken within 8-12 hours.
Degenerative changes in the lymphatic system include slow response by the T cells as well as the B cells and this means impaired immune response in the body.
The types of trauma in the lymphatic system include mechanical injury that might be caused by surgery and radiation. Parasites can also affect and permanently damage the lymphatic system.Nursing Interventions and planning services
Nursing interventions include elevating the arm or the leg above the position of the heart and avoiding rapid motions that could lead to centrifugal pooling of fluid in hands and legs. Avoiding heat to the limbs is also necessary and avoiding carrying a purse or heavy objects that can affect the arm.
Anatomy
Cells
The immune system is made up of five major components that include the lymphatics, lymph nodes, thymus and the spleen as well as cells. The cells of the immune system are the B and T cells. B cells and T cells are the major types of the lymphocytes and are very crucial to the adaptive immune system. The B cells, type 2 helper T cells, antibodies, mast cells and the eosinophils are involved in the humoral immune response. On the other hand, Type 1 helper T cells and the cytotoxic T cells are involved in the cell mediated immune responses
The immune system acts as the mechanical barriers and this is made possible by the skin and mucus membranes. It is also a chemical barrier whereby tears, perspirations and saliva wash away pathogens and they are also phagocytes and the natural killer cells. The immune system also cause inflammation and fever.
Pictorial Representation
The immune system is directly related to the lymphatic system since cells that are used in the immune system are also used in the lymphatic system .Besides, all the organs in the lymphatic system like the spleen, thymus are also from the lymphatic system
The common disorders of the immune system include the Severe combined immunodeficiency that is present at birth due to infections by bacteria, fungi and viruses. Temporary acquired immune deficiencies and HIV/AIDS are also disorders due to the immune system
Defence and Immune Responses
Defence system and immune response in the immune system is due to the innate immune system that trigger production of antibodies that destroy the pathogens. There are other barriers like the skin that acts as shields and then the chemical barriers like tears and perspirations that wash away the pathogens
Medications and contraindications
The current treatment of the severe combined immunodeficiency is through bone marrow transplant that offer a new immune system to the patient. Gene therapy has also shown success in some clinical trials. Fatigue, nausea, mouth sores are the side effects of transplant of the bone marrow
Degenerative changes of the immune system includes slow responsiveness by both the T and B cells and this leads to delayed immune response. The body is therefore prone to attack by different pathogens since the barriers are broken down
Like the lymphatic system, the type of injury to the immune system is the mechanical injury that may arise due to motor accidents or the surgeries
Nursing interventions in this case include referring to community resources and support groups and providing written materials as well as referring to psychiatric clinical nurse specialist and professional sexual therapist as indicated. Encouraging and accepting expressions of anger and grief and assist in the treatment of the underlying condition
Respiratory System
Upper Respiratory tract
The anatomy of the upper respiratory tract is constituted around the nostrils, the nasal cavities, the pharynx, the epiglottis and finally the larynx
Lower Respiratory tract
The lower respiratory tract is made up of the trachea, the bronchi and the lungs. The lungs are two and are located in the thorax. They are made up of million alveoli. The lower end of the trachea divides into two bronchi that branch into each lung. The trachea is a tube around 5cm in length that link up the larynx and the bronchi
Physiology
The core functions of the respiratory system is supply oxygen to the body parts and dispose of oxygen. To effectively do this, four distinct events generally referred to as respiration must take place. The air is inhaled through the nose to the pharynx. The diaphragm moves downwards as the ribs move upward and outwards increased the volume of the chest and air pressure is reduced thus air flows into the lung cavity. During exhalation, the diaphragm moves upwards as the ribs move downwards and inwards decreasing volume of the chest cavity and the air pressure increases thus air is expelled outwards
Pictorial Representation
The respiratory system is related to the cardiovascular system because blood full of oxygen is pumped from the heart to other parts of the body. The body parts then dispose of carbon dioxide to the blood which is again taken to the right side of the blood which is again taken to the lungs for oxygenation. This therefore simply means that the respiratory and the cardiovascular system work together to bring out desired changes in the body
The most common diseases that attack the respiratory system are asthma and the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Asthma is the inflammation of lungs that leads to Ove secretion of mucus and mucosal oedema leading to airflow obstruction thus difficulties in breathing. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease refer to any disease that impairs air flow in the bronchioles .However, chronic bronchitis and emphysema are the most common types
Defence and Immune Responses
The respiratory system protects itself against infections by the use of cilia, mucus layer and the alveolar macrophages which are found on the surface of the alveoli that protect the lungs against invasion of pathogens. The mucus layer on the other hand traps pathogens before they reach the lungs. Cilia are hair like structures in the airways and they are also used to trap pathogens
Medications and contraindications
For asthma, medication is through the use of Albuterol, Levalbuterol, and Terbutaline. This are short acting beta 2 adrenergic agonists. Inhaled corticosteroids include Budesonide, Fluticasone, Beclomethasone and Mometasone. Diuretics and Digoxin interact with Albuterol and should therefore not be used at the same time.
Degenerative Changes
With aging, the respiratory system is bound to experience degenerative changes that include the lung parenchyma losing its supporting structure leading to dilation of air spaces. The alveolar dead space also increase with age and there is decreased sensation to hypoxia and hypercapnia. The end results is ventilator failure
Types of Trauma
There are four main types of trauma that affects the respiratory system and they include the broken or fractured ribs, pulmonary contusions which is also called bruised lungs, pneumothorax and finally the hem thorax which refers to the accumulation of blood between the lungs and the chest
For the case of asthma, Nursing interventions include four care plans that include ineffective Breathing pattern, Ineffective Airway clearance, deficient knowledge and anxiety. The desired outcomes in this case is that patient exhibits optimal breathing patterns that can be shown by relaxed breathing and normal respiratory patterns. Nursing interventions for COPD include care plans that are ineffective airway clearance, impaired gas exchange, ineffective breathing patterns and the risk for infection
Digestive System
The digestive system is made up of the mouth that has teeth and the tongue and digestive system. Then there is the pharynx and the oesophagus through which food is moved to the stomach. There is the stomach which is found in the abdominal cavity and then the small intestines and the liver and the bladder on the lower abdomen. Finally it is the large intestines.
There are six processes in the digestive system and they include ingestion, secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes, mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body, absorption of nutrients and then excretion of wastes. Ingestion is the intake of food and it occurs in the mouth. Secretion of fluids that include saliva, mucus, HCL, enzymes and bile. Mixing and movement occurs in the mouth and when in the oesophagus. Movements is due to peristalsis. Absorption of the digested food begins in the stomach. Excretion is the final process and it is through the process of defecation.
The digestive system relates with the nervous system as it is the nervous system that regulate the speed at which food moves along the digestive tract. The circulatory system is also very useful and relates to the digestive system because it moves useful nutrients to the body parts and removes waste products
Diseases of the digestive system are very many and they include Crohn disease which is the inflammation of the GIT and the Celiac disease where individuals cannot tolerate gluten. Cholera is also a common disease and occurs to consuming contaminated food and water. Jaundice is also another disease and it is due to accumulation of bile pigments in the blood. Gastroenteritis is also common and it is the infection of the stomach lining and the intestines. There is dysentery which inflammation of the intestines. Appendicitis is also common and it is the inflammation of the appendix.
In the digestive system, the mucosal surface in the gastrointestinal tract forms a barrier through absorbing pathogens thus preventing invasion of the pathogens. Production of the antimicrobial peptides from epithelia also protect the GIT
Cholera is caused by bacteria vibrio cholera and can therefore be treated by the use of antibiotics. Besides antibiotics, rehydration therapy is also useful and zinc treatment. Tetracycline is the drug of choice for cholera. Nausea and swollen tongues are the side effects and they should not be used with calcium and magnesium supplements as they reduce effectiveness. It should not be used on people who had allergies or asthma.
With aging, the oesophagus contractions and tension in the upper region decrease and the stomach linings capacity to resist damage reduce. This raises the risk of peptic ulcers. The pancreas reduce in weight while in the gallbladder, the number of structural and microscopic changes take place.
The only type of trauma to the digestive tract is the blunt injury and it occurs due to surgery. Mechanical injuries also happen though they are very rare
Nursing Interventions and planning services
Nursing interventions for the digestive system include Assessment of the ability to move to know which specific activity can be done. Measuring the weight so as to determine weight loss and serving food in small portions but often and warm so as to increase the appetite. Analgesics should also be administered as ordered and the assessment of the characteristics of pain, location as well as frequency. Providing enough rest periods to provide energy can also help in the healing process
Urinary System
The urinary system is made up of two kidneys that are bean shaped and the ureters that are tubes which carry urine from kidneys to the gall bladder. There is the urinary bladder where urine is stored at the inferior end of the pelvis. Then there is the urethra that is a tube which passes urine to the external environment.
The urinary system has three main functions that include maintenance of homeostasis, storage and excretion of waste products and production of hormone. Erythroprotein is a hormone produced by the kidneys and is responsible for production of red blood cells. Renin is also produced by the kidneys and finally calcitriol which is the active form of vitamin D.The kidneys also excrete waste products like urine which is transported by the ureters to the gall bladder for storage and later expelled from the body through the urethra. The urinary system also maintains homeostasis by regulating excretion of different ions in the body like potassium and sodium. The urinary system also maintains PH by regulating the levels of hydrogen ions.
The urinary system is directly related to the reproductive system since in the female and the male reproductive system, there are times when the urinary system come in contact with the reproductive system like during urination where urine passes through the urethra to the external environment. The same urethra in male conveys the sperms to the vagina.
There are different diseases that attack the urinary systems and they include kidney stones which are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be deposited anywhere in the urinary tract. They are as a result of chemicals in urine becoming concentrated to form a solid mass. Interstitial cystitis is another disease though common in women and it causes scarring in bladder. Its cause is not yet well defined. There are other Urinary Tract Infections that are caused by different bacteria and they predominantly affect the kidney, bladder and urethra.
In the urinary system, it is the innate immune response that responds in a very rapid manner to infection in the urinary tract. The molecules and cells involved include antimicrobial peptides, toll like receptors, chemokines, cytokines and neutrophils. Since it is the bacteria that is the most cause of UTIs, the antimicrobial peptides lyse the bacteria and prevent the bacteria in binding to the epithelial cells of the urinary tract.
Since UTIs are commonly caused by bacteria, antibiotics are the first line drugs. The most commonly used antibiotics include Trimethoprim, Fosfomycin, Nitrofurantoin, Cephalexin and finally the Ceftriaxone. For simple UTIs, it is the Fluoroquinolones that are mostly used. Patients are however recommended to drink plenty of water, avoid drinks that can irritate the bladder like alcohol. Sweating ,nausea and vomiting are the side effects.
Degenerative changes in the urinary system take place due to aging and they include changes in the walls of the bladder whereby the elastic tissues become tough and the muscles weaken. The urethra sometimes become blocked and the blood vessels that supply blood to the kidney become hardened. The number of filtering units in the nephron become hardened.
There are two types of trauma in the urinary system and they include blunt trauma and the penetrating wounds like bullet or stab wounds. However, the bladder is located within the bones of the pelvis and therefore low chances of trauma
For urinary tract infections, nursing interventions is through six care plans that include impaired urinary elimination, infection, acute pain, deficient knowledge, disturbed sleep pattern and hyperthermia. Assessment of patients pattern of elimination and noting the age and gender of the patient is key. The patients should also be encouraged to take more fluids and to void every 2-3 hours .Maintaining the acidic environment of the bladder is also key by use of agents like Mandelamine.
The female reproductive system anatomy is made up of external structures that include the labia majora, labia minora, Bartholin’s glands and the clitoris. The internal structures include the vagina, the uterus, ovaries and the fallopian tubes. The anatomy of the male reproductive system on the other hand is about scrotum that hose the testes and now the testes that produce the sperms. There is a tightly coiled epididymis that acts as the storage of the sperms. The spermatic cords and the ductus deferens are just used as pathways along which sperms move. The seminal vesicle is then used to store and produce the semen. There is then the semen which is a fluid in which sperms are suspended and the penis which is external that is inserted into the vagina
Vagina is the canal that links with the cervix. It is the site of deposition of sperms and the birth canal. The uterus is divided into the cervix and the corpus. The uterus is where the baby now develops into maturity. The ovaries are very small and they produce the eggs and the hormones. Fallopian tubes is the site where fertilization now takes place. Physiology of the male reproductive system is in two fold i.e. spermatogenesis and fertilization. Spermatogenesis begin with the LH that trigger production of testosterone that now stimulate production and maturation of the sperms. Fertilization is now where the sperm combines with the ova and it begins when the sperms are deposited at the vagina and fertilization takes place in the fallopian tubes
The reproductive system relate with the urinary system since in men, the route of the sperms and urine are generally the same which is the urethra and the ureter
Ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, sexually transmitted diseases, menstrual cramping, vaginal yeast infection and the pelvic inflammatory disease are the most common diseases that attack the female reproductive system. Pelvic inflammatory disease is caused by gonorrhoea and chlamydia which are sexually transmitted diseases. Vaginal yeast infection is caused by yeast fungus that is found in the vagina .Sexually transmitted diseases are caused by unprotected sexual behaviours while cancers are caused by different factors. In men, the most common diseases are prostate cancer, erectile dysfunction that might be caused by the old age of the male and then prostasis which is the inflammation of the prostate gland leading to difficulties during urination
Adaptive and innate immune systems are key in protecting infection at the reproductive system whereby the adaptive immune system triggers the production of antibodies against pathogens. In the female reproductive system however, there must be balance between the beneficial bacteria and those that are harmful. The saline environment at the vagina also renders some bacteria unsuitable to settle at.
For the ovarian, cervical and prostate cancer, the medication is either chemotherapy or radiotherapy depending on the type of the tumour as well as the stage of the infection. For sexually transmitted infections like gonorrhoea, the best treatment option include ceftriaxone and cefixime that are administered through injections.Nausea,vomiting and sweating are the side effects and they should not be taken with alcohol.
Men do not usually major or rapid change in fertility with age like the women. However, changes occur gradually through what is known as cell andropause. In the testes, testicular mass reduces and sex hormone decrease as well. There are also problems with getting an erection. In women, aging cause’s changes in the amount of menstrual flow and the ovaries stop producing ova. The vaginal walls become thin and vaginal yeast infection increases, there is also little breast tissue and lower sex drive
In female, the type of injuries include hematoma where blood clots in the labia and vaginal lacerations. Bruises also occur and swelling of the labia from straddle injury. In male there is the genital trauma that occurs during sports or during physical exercise
For the cases of cancer, the cells are observed to find out any abnormalities so that therapy can be initiated. For sexually transmitted infections, different antibiotics are used to treat them. Patients are also advised to use protection when engaging in sexual activities.
References
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Delaney, M.A., Kowalewska, J. and Treuting, P.M., 2017. Urinary System. In Comparative Anatomy and Histology (Second Edition) (pp. 275-301).
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