Anthropocene is defined as a new and a current epoch, which signals the significant earth alteration through human activities. These pertain changes such as habitat loss, global warming, atmospheric chemical composition, soil, animal and ocean extinctions. According to Crutzen et al., Anthropocene is a very important concept as it helps in explaining the gravity of our present-day situation (Crutzen et al. 2011). This concept helps the scientist to draw attention on the severity of changes as well as the widespread degradation of earth’s supporting life systems.
The concept, therefore, stands as an important facet for inspiring bold science and actions of reversing the devastating trends. Moreover, the concept development has opened opportunities for serious global debates entailing ways of recovery the planet. The term is also very useful in the scientific community. This is because the concept engages the scientific community in presenting detailed evidence for major ecological and geological changes that result from human activities. Its emergence led to the development of AWG, which is the Anthropocene Working Group. The group primarily aims at discussing on what Anthropocene is all about.
Intrinsic value refers to the significance of an entity towards itself. According to some of the environmental ethicists, ecosystems and species have a good thing of their own. Intrinsic value proponents strongly believe in the practice of biological conservation. According to Justus et al. (2009), the practices aims at accomplishing goals that are justifiable especially if there are costs associated with species preservation as well as effective management of the ecological systems. There are also alternatives uses for the managed funds and spaces. If restricting specific activities in a given area or even allocating some resources for species preservation is justifiable, then this justification must make an appeal to the species value or ecosystem itself.
Instrumental value, on the other hand, is the value for something in relation to the desired or valued end (Justus et al 2009). Instrumental value for something normally fluctuates as a result of the desirability changes of the end. This value is substitutable, compensable and replaceable. Examples of intrinsic environmental values include; inherent worth, natural historical values, beauty, wilderness and wondrousness. Instrumental values include medicinal, recreational, cultural, spiritual, and transformational values.
Ownership is the key to how the economic systems work. These two terms, ownership and capitalism are both theoretically and historically intertwined. Resource ownership is basically an equally beneficial process of acquiring materials or assets so that profit can be generated once the products have been produced from this asset or commodity. In commodification, the ideas, people, or assets as resources are transformed into objects of trade or rather the commodities. The relevance and importance of land and ownership in terms of regions, localities and countries vary depending on the resource being considered.
Due to globalisation and market reforms, cities have continued to undergo significant transformation (Castree 2003). They have become the nation’s engine for speeding up of the economy. The commodification is shaped by the communal land tenure regimes. The current public regulations that pertain the use of land have primarily acted as an instrument for opening access to commodity and labor production. In Australia for example, indigenous groups and rural peasant normally maintain communal land ownership rather than individual claims to land resources.
Planetary urbanization simply means the greater number that lives in cities and others that lives in rural areas are either directly or indirectly involved in ensuring there is a continuous urbanization process globally. Planetary urbanism is directly connected to resource and waste circulation due to the expanded reproduction in its socio-physical and functioning form. This is because planet urbanization is estimated to be 80% responsible for the world’s resource use and release of the world’s waste products due to an increased number of people (Merrifield 2012).
The increased population consumes a lot of water and energy both at the household level and in the industries. The end product increases households and industrial wastes. According to Merrifield (2012), the United Kingdom is one of the planetary urbanized areas with more than sixty-five million individuals living there. This number is playing a great role in making the UK produce great quantities of waste that are damaging the ecosystem. Having this in mind, the United Kingdom government is creating more resource-efficient commodities that will be needed globally. The world is undergoing another industrial revolution which is driven by technology advancement. This, therefore, makes the younger generation to be more aware of the need to care for the environment.
Our cities are never separated from nature rather they are always multispecies socio-natural spaces. This statement means that our modern cities have realized that we are part of nature and therefore the need to connect this nature into cities in order to reach a healthy urban lifestyle. Nature and cities need each other. People living in the cities will require nature to offer efficient resources inhabitants of the urban environment are not only human but also other species, plants that are introduced by human, pets, and commensals that take advantage of human resources among others.
Diverse species are related through various activities pertaining to behavioral co-adaptations, food chains, interspecies communication as well as the use of a shared environment. Urban planners and designers are thinking on how our cities can have the capacity to connect the unique historical, socio as well as the ecological dimension of cities with planetary changes (Houston 2017). Conservation of indigenous species in our cities, as well as the introduction of multispecies in our cities, will lead to a more biologically friendly that fully support the urban environment.
The Columbia interchange, also referred to as the Columbia exchange was an extensive transfer of animals, plants, technology, human population, culture and concepts among West Africa, Americas as well as the old world of the fifteenth to the sixteenth century. Moreover, it might also be used to refer to the colonization and trade of Europeans that resulted in communicable diseases as an exchange byproduct. Carney in her article that entitled the African rice in Columbian exchange identified the role of Africans in rice and other crops establishment in America.
In her article, Carney shed light on the slave trade that made Africans be taken away in order for them to be forced laborers in American plantations (Carney 2001). The idea of Columbia exchange applied when Africans were shipped away together with their crops such as rice, sorghum, millet and yams. These cereals could be used for feeding slaves in the cruise. Americans ended up African domestication crops through the slaves who preferred growing these crops in the United States.
The 1866 game protection act was the first established act aimed at protecting the biota. Since that time, the legislation for biodiversity conservation has undergone various significant modifications with respect to its aims as well as its focus on protection. Its ways of achieving these objectives have also changed dramatically. In the 19th century, there were assumptions that were behind the game protection act. These entailed; prevention of extinction as well as promoting the endangered species recovery, population as well as environmental communities (Murphy & Nally 2004).
The other assumption was to eliminate or rather manage the threatening processes, and final but not least to encourage and promote the conservation of species that are threatened as well as the ecological communities and population. Each assumption had the main components. The components were as follows that the fauna endangered species could only be harmed under the consent of National Park Director. The other component was to offer an urgent scientific evaluation of the fauna’s status of conservation in NSW.
Gifford Pinchot and Jon Muir had diverse beliefs over conservation and preservation. Muir was a conservationist, while Pinchot Gifford was the leading preservationist from America. As a way of preserving nature, both men spent most of their time defending the wildlife and the natural resources that are around the world. The different approaches made by the two men enhanced the conservation and protection of nature. Pinchot used the concept of wildland conservation as an approach in developing a Forest Products Lab (“Conservation versus Preservation? |
US Forest Service,” n.d.). This was the preeminent wood laboratory for research in the world. Muir, on the other hand, used an approach of becoming the father founder of the outdoor preservation movement in America. This movement resulted in the creation of 1916 United States Park Service. It’s through their contributory effort dated one hundred years ago that has made the dual preservation and conservation strategy to yield success both in America and the entire world that aims at emulating the American’s federal system of land management.
The usefulness of the 1788 concept of beyond biotic Nativeness in Australia, has been challenged in natural and social science for a variety of reasons. This year is anticipated to be the baseline of Nativeness or naturalness in the endangered species legislation in Australia. This was based on the commonwealth government working on the country’s program, measurement of environmental health by the government and in the government overviews in terms of the environmental reports (Head 2016).
The first scientific collection of flora in Australia was made two years later by Daniel Solander and Joseph Banks that represented an event which had both the scientific and historical significance. According to Head 2016, the Biotic Nativeness concept dissolves under empirical scrutiny in Australia than anywhere else. The various attempt in the management of biota and landscape in Australia require rethinking. This call for more thinking on how to develop an open environmentally feature in the periods of climate change.
The concept of a metabolic rift was articulated by Karl Marx as an ecological disruption. John Foster retrieved the Marx Ecology as an analytical tool of energizing the renewal of Ecosocialist thought. Metabolic shifts name the dynamics between the non-human and human nature as being metabolic relations. According to Foster (2013) this concept argue that whatever we consume as humans, we must return it either inform of biological waste products or even in the common waste form that can be re-consumed by the earth.
The metabolic shift is characterized by historical materialists in various ways. The distinction between natural and social system is theoretically arbitrary. Examples of metabolic shift include agriculture and manufactured goods. In agriculture, the chain of metabolic shifts has continued. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, nitrates deposits were depleted. Capitalist agriculture depended largely on nitrate fertilizers. The same way agriculture globalisation creates metabolic shifts and it is the same way that manufactured commodities creates additional shifts.
Urban food deserts can be defined as the geographical areas where inhabitant’s access to affordable and healthy food choices such as vegetables and fresh fruits is either limited or nonexistence as a result of the absence of grocery stores within a traveling distance that is convenient for them. Unlike unhealthful foods, healthier foods are usually very expensive in the urban food desert (Crowe et al 2018).
In addition, residents of food deserts have difficulties in locating food items that are culturally suitable for them, and dietary limits such as gluten allergies and lactose intolerance. Others who have more selection are restricted from food choices because they lack large chain stores that have a variety of food items (Crowe et al. 2018). They, therefore, end up buying less or one single item. Individuals who are at high risk of suffering from food desert are house sold with children and single mother’s households.
In order to lower the water crisis, there is need to think broadly about the problem-solving strategies. These strategies are; address the drivers of climate change so that water is protected for all lives. By stopping the dynamics of climate change, hydrological systems will continue to function. This is because, climate normally shapes the whole trends linked with rainfall, glacial melt, snowpack and other factors connected to water cycle (Cosgrove & Rijsberman 2002).
This, therefore, calls for carbon lowering. Another context of water is to think efficiency. This advocate for contractors to redesign buildings, industries and residential water systems for low water use. The third context in fighting water crisis is to maintain the functioning of green infrastructure that is in the form of forests. By growing trees in a watershed helps in maintaining the functions of the watershed. The fourth aspect of water crises is to select a non-persistent, non-toxic compound
Wilderness and diversity has diverse have distinct tasks. As uninhabited areas, wilderness was created through human resident exclusion.in our contemporary world, the pristine wild lands that are left on the earth may be referred to as wilderness. It is a protection type that is granted within the forest, national park or areas where development or roads are allowed. Wilderness areas play an important role in being the habitat for indigenous people to live and protect their ancestral land against developments (Swyngedouw 2015).
This is achieved under newly created initiative such as Yanomami Park in Brazil and Intangible zone in Ecuador. Wilderness, therefore, call for the preservation of certain animal and plant species that are likely to become extinct as a result h human developments. Biodiversity, on the other hand, focuses on boosting productivity if the ecosystem where every species whether small or large has a key role. Biodiversity conservation can reduce the risk of spread of infectious diseases in plants, animals and human.
An alternative economy is defined as any economic structure is separate and operates mostly independently. This economy will have its own way of conducting commerce and also its own currency. This is under the goal of crafting self-sufficiency levels highly. According to the environmental activist Henderson Hazel, the end of economics offer an excellent approach for working and imagining the alternative economy. Individuals can take part in an alternate economy using different ways depending on their taste. This gives it the advantage of creating a safer and pleasant environment for both the families and individuals to live in. In the alternate economy, a personal relationship is emphasized (Healy, S 2009. Since they are self-sufficient, they are able to survive the reverse of the economy. Examples of the alternative economy include household economies, community economies and Islamic banking. They somehow challenge the existing capitalism.
Liquids in the natural world perform a key role in permitting organisms to sustain external and internal boundaries through their controlled and limited transgression. The hydro social cycle is referred to as a socio-natural process through which water and the society make as well as remaking each other. This concept directs the attention on how water is produced as well as being used.
This cycle is based on the concept of hydrologic though modified in significant ways (Swyngedouw 2015). The hydrologic cycle has an impact of separating water from its social setting, hydro social on the other hand attends to water’s political and social nature. Hydrosocial cycle is persistently contracted with hydrological cycle. This is an enduring and a dominant concept that portrays the flow of water and physical states yet regarding water process and water itself as a political and a social. The elements of Hydrosocial cycle entails anthropology and science studies.
References
Carney, J. (2001) African Rice In The Columbian Exchange. The Journal of African History, 42(03). doi:10.1017/s0021853701007940
Castree, N. (2003) Commodifying what nature? Progress in Human Geography, 27(3), 273-297.
Conservation versus Preservation? | US Forest Service. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.fs.fed.us/blogs/conservation-versus-preservation
Cosgrove and Rijsberman (2002) World Water Vision – Making Water Everybody’s Business. Wold Water Council.
Crowe, J., Lacy, C., & Columbus, Y. (2018) Barriers to Food Security and Community Stress in an Urban Food Desert. Urban Science, 2(2), 46. doi:10.3390/urbansci2020046
Crutzen, PJ & Schwa?gerl C 2011. ‘Living in the Anthropocene: toward a new global ethos’, Yale Environment 360, https://e360.yale.edu/
Foster, J. (2013) Marx and the Rift in the Universal Metabolism of Nature. Monthly Review, 65(7), 1. doi:10.14452/mr-065-07-2013-11_1
Head, L. (2016) Hope and Grief in the Anthropocene. doi:10.4324/9781315739335
Healy, S. (2009) Alternative economies. International encyclopedia of human geography, 338-344.
Houston, D., Hillier, J., MacCallum, D., Steele, W. & Byrne, J. (2017) Make kin, not cities! Multispecies entanglements and ‘becoming-world’in planning theory. Planning Theory, 1473095216688042
Justus, J., Colyvan, M., Regan, H & Maguire, L. (2009) Buying into conservation: intrinsic versus instrumental value. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 24(4), 187-191. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.11.011
Merrifield, A. (2012) The Urban Question under Planetary Urbanization. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 37(3), 909-922. doi:10.1111/j.14682427.2012.01189.x
Murphy, M. & Nally, S. (2004) Case studies in implementing the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 for invertebrate conservation. Threatened species legislation, 107-124. doi:10.7882/fs.2004.063
Swyngedouw, E. (2015) The Hydro-Social Cycle and the Making of Cyborg Worlds. Liquid Power, 19-38. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262029032.003.0002
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