Discuss the concept of measurement in accounting and examine the limitations of “present value” as a measurement base in providing decision-useful information by supporting your arguments with the help of research articles (Use at least two research articles from academic journals).
This report is intended to evaluate different cost valuation methods. There are three main methods for the valuation of financial items. These methods are fair value method, present value and historical cost. Market Value is the normal value of comparable assets according to request and supply of the benefit in current connection. Fair value is characterized as “the sum for which a benefit could be traded, an obligation settled, or a value instrument allowed could be traded, be-tween educated, willing gatherings in an a safe distance exchange.” Fair value is accordingly a business sector based measure. IFRS has progressively called for utilization of fair value estimations in the financial proclamations.
From the given explanation, we see that hypothetically we may accept that a business uses a specific resource valuation strategy for every one of its assets. There are distinctive resource valuation strategies and diverse assets that a business holds. There is nobody best resource portfolio and nobody best resource valuation strategy for the paper and down to earth achievement record. So as to gain more insight about it, we should comprehend 3 fundamental resource estimation methodologies; they’re, (Fair value measurements, 2006)
1. Valuation at historical cost: Historical Value is the valuation of benefit at the aggregate buy cost or obtaining cost of the advantage (Diewert, 2005). Littleton uncovers that historical cost accounting is best for financial reporting according to financial bookkeepers because of its reproducibility properties. Thus, however an old hypothesis, adjusting the historical cost valuations of assets is best left to administration accounting (Littleton, 1956). According to the historical cost technique, assets are valued at the cost at which they were bought. According to the historical cost technique, assets are deteriorated every year at straight line or reducing parity strategy. IASB likewise requires that if an advantage is measured at historical cost, it ought to be impairment tried every year. On the off chance that the benefit is overvalued, an impairment cost ought to be charged in the announcement of financial execution and resource ought to be valued down.
2. Valuation at business sector value:. For this situation, the income approach has been used to evaluate the business sector value of Origin Energy and the value determined would include all the unmistakable/intangible assets used in the business (Australian Property Institute API, 2012). The assets that use market value methodology are significantly investment securities. According to the Market Value Method, assets are valued at the existing Market Value at which they can be bought. According to the Market Value Method, assets are deteriorated yearly at straight line or reducing equalization strategy. IASB likewise requires that if an advantage is measured at Market Value Method, it ought to be impairment tried every year. In the event that the benefit is overvalued, an impairment cost ought to be charged in the announcement of financial execution and resource ought to be valued down.
Valuation at Fair value: Under fair value, the harmony cost is inferred at a point of selling or transferring liabilities. (Harrison and Horngren, 2001) Such an exchange is held between business sector players/members at future date. In Origin, the fair value of value-based swaps and future costs are figured using the present value (PV) of the anticipated trade streams out the future and obtainable business sector forward costs. According to the fair value technique, assets are measured at it fair value. The fair value can be of two sorts. Firsts it can be the value at which the benefit can be sold or purchased in an exchange in light of a safe distance. Also the help’s fair value can be the present value without bounds financial advantages that could be accomplished from the benefit. The present value without bounds monetary advantages can be computed using a proper rebate rate.
All the financial assets are essential part of the aggregate assets. These financial assets are computed on the premise of Fair valuation. (Ijiri, 1981)According to the AASB 13 standard, the combined firm has set up control structure as for the estimation of fair values (Australian Accounting Standards Board AASB, 2013)
AASB 138 manages the acknowledgment, estimation and administration of intangible assets. Intangible assets are the assets which can’t be seen or that are not physical assets. However there are a few issues confronted by the organizations accounting using AASB 138. These issues include the way that these assets are normally internally produced and in numerous cases it is hard to value these assets.
One of the significant issues in the fair value strategy is that there could be a few swings in the fair value of the benefit. Such variances in the value of the benefit could bring about inappropriate gains and misfortunes being recorded in the financial statements.
Moreover the fair value technique doesn’t consider the historical point of view of the assets. It doesn’t represent the real thought paid for the securing of assets. Hence it may not be fair to record the benefit at a value at which it was not bought.
Furthermore the fair value strategy disheartens the investor for the situation of descending revaluations as in such cases a misfortune is recorded in the financial statements which consequently lessens the net income that would be dispersed to the investors.
The idea of Cash Generating Unit is produced by the International Financial Reporting Standards board to survey if there is impairment in the assets. Using such strategy, it is conceivable to quantify the money streams got from the assets. However there are some blemishes in the techniques recommended, for example, the Value in Use can be determined by discounting the future money streams that would be earned from the Cash Generating Unit yet there is no legitimate strategy gave to determine the rebate rate to ascertain the present value of money streams.
Also despite the fact that the CGU is valued all the more precisely, yet the individual values of the assets may not be so exact.
To survey if any impairment is required the book value or the carrying value is contrasted and the recoverable measure of the Cash Generating Unit. The recoverable measure of the Cash Generating Unit is the higher of the business sector value or the fair value of the Cash Generating Unit and the Value in Use of the benefit. (Jaedicke, Ijiri and Nielsen, 1966) However the business sector value of these assets may hard to determine.
It is untrue in down to earth stadium for a business to pick one methodology. It is because a business may have various assets that request to be valued with various aforementioned approaches. Two general classifications of assets in an association are 1) current assets which include transient assets and 2) non-current assets like altered/long haul assets, investment and attractive securities and intangibles.
The utilization of present value investigation in not-for-profit elements experiences the same real restriction that happens in the corporate region. The issue with this system is that if the installment timetables are not altered in a legitimate assention, it is hard to make exact conjectures of future cash flows. As the timeframe under examination turns out to be more stretched out into the future, the unwavering quality of anticipated cash flows turns out to be more off base. From a hypothetical perspective, anticipating cash flows into the future for a long time or increasingly and applying the idea of reduced cash flows is conceivable. Along these lines, the value of extensive resources can undoubtedly be contrasted with each other with dissuade mine which is the slightest costly option for the not-for-profit association. Challenges start to emerge when these cash projections are taken out of a hypothetical connection and connected to genuine circumstances. In certifiable circumstances, ordinarily it is exceptionally difficulty to develop cash stream projections out into the far off future as a result of the difficulty of precisely anticipating the cash flows from a venture. Hypothetically, this method is pertinent to long-go examination, however practically speaking, long-extend cash stream projections are known not erroneous. As a result, the use of genuine operation systems have been connected to these circumstances.’ In numerous cases, genuine alternative techniques experience the ill effects of a portion of the same constraints confronting present value strategies.
IFRS requires that organizations represent and report numerous advantages and liabilities on the premise of obtaining cost. This is frequently alluded to as the historical cost guideline. Cost has an imperative point of interest over different valuations: It is by and large thought to be an unwavering representation of the sum paid for a given thing. To represent this point of preference, consider the issues if organizations select current offering cost. Organizations may experience issues building up a value for unsold things. Each individual from the bookkeeping office may value the benefits in an unexpected way. Further, how frequently would it be important to build up deals value? All organizations close their records in any event every year. Be that as it may, some figure their net wage each month. Those organizations would need to put a business value on each benefit every time they wished to decide pay. Commentators raise comparable protests against current cost (re-position cost, present value of future money streams) and whatever other premise of valuation aside from historical cost. Shouldn’t something be said about liabilities? Do organizations represent them on a cost premise? Yes, they do. Organizations issue liabilities, for example, bonds, notes, and records payable, in return for resources (or administrations), at a settled upon cost. This cost, built up by the ex-change exchange, is the “cost” of the obligation. An organization uses this add up to record the risk in the records and report it in financial explanations. Along these lines, numerous clients favor historical cost since it furnishes them with an evident benchmark for measuring historical patterns.
Fair value is characterized as “the sum for which a benefit could be traded, an obligation settled, or a value instrument allowed could be traded, be-tween educated, willing gatherings in an a safe distance exchange.” Fair value is accordingly a business sector based measure. IFRS has progressively called for utilization of fair value estimations in the financial proclamations. This is regularly alluded to as the fair value prin-ciple. Fair value data might be more helpful than historical cost for certain sorts of benefits and liabilities and in specific businesses. For instance, organizations report numerous financial instruments, including subsidiaries, at fair value. Certain commercial ventures, for example, business houses and common assets, set up their essential financial proclamations on a fair value premise. Essentially, in the horticultural industry, natural resources, for example, yields and domesticated animals, am measured on the premise of net feasible value. Net feasible value for the most part approximates fair value for these as-sets. In these circumstances, there is a prepared and dynamic business sector for these advantages. Along these lines, the novel way of these commercial enterprises requires a takeoff from historical cost for fair value estimation. At beginning securing, historical cost rises to fair value. In consequent periods, as business sector and financial conditions change, historical cost and fair value regularly veer. In this manner, fair value measures or gauges regularly give more significant data about the normal future money streams identified with the advantage or obligation. For instance, when seemingly perpetual resources decrease in value, a fair value measure decides any impedance misfortune. For this situation, fair value estimation, it is contended, gives better knowledge into the value of an organization’s benefit and liabilities (its financial position) and a superior premise for evaluating future income prospects. The 1ASB has likewise stepped of giving organizations the choice to utilize fair value (alluded to as the fair value alternative) as the premise for estimation of financial resources and financial liabilities. (5] The Board considers fair value more important than historical cost in these circumstances since it mirrors the present money identical value of financial instruments. Thus organizations now have the alternative to record fair value in their records for most financial instruments, including such things as receivables, ventures, obligation securities, and financial liabilities. Some restrict the development to fair value estimation. They contend that quantify in view of fair value brings expanded subjectivity into bookkeeping reports, when fair value data is not promptly accessible. For instance, it is anything but difficult to touch base at fair values when markets are fluid with numerous dealers, yet fair value answers are not promptly accessible in different circumstances. For instance, how would you value the home loan upheld resources held by Societe Generale (FRA) and Barclays (GBR) if the business sector for these securities basically vanishes? In these circumstances, organizations may depend on valuation models taking into account marked down anticipated that money streams would touch base at fair value estimations. Clearly, a lot of mastery and sound judgment is expected to touch base at measures that are representationally dependable.” As showed above, we in the blink of an eye have a “blended quality” framework that allows the utilization of historical cost and fair value. Despite the fact that the historical cost standard keeps on being a critical premise for valuation, recording and reporting of fair value data is expanding.
A few reactions have been made against the utilization of fair value. A significant number of these contentions allude to the expanded instability of fair value bookkeeping measures and the outcomes thereof. Notwithstanding, in doing as such, they truth be told raise the more crucial issue of the genuine capacity of bookkeeping models and the importance of sifting or, in actuality, better mirroring the real instability of monetary action. On the other hand, different reactions underline the unjustified increment in the unpredictability of profit and shareholders’ value as an aftereffect of a certain abandonment of the going concern rule. The most habitually refered to feedback concerns resources not exchanged on a productive business sector, which are thus valued on the premise of inner models. Spoilers stretch the absence of objectivity and nonpartisanship in these valuations, and the loss of unwavering quality and similarity because of the utilization of inner models (Allen and Carletti 2008a). Different commentators contend that the utilization of the fair value bookkeeping model suggests taking a fleeting way to deal with the administration of an organization. Finally, certain depreciators of this model push the restrictive cost of getting data, given the constrained value of fair value information for clients.
Notwithstanding the expanding prevalence of this bookkeeping show, the utilization of fair value as a general valuation rule represents various down to earth issues and raises real issues. Despite the fact that the advantages credited to fair value techniques are for the most part the aftereffect of deductive thinking, suspicions and even attestations, the feedback regularly originates from fears instead of genuine deficiencies that have been pinpointed in an experimental way. The presentation of valuation in financial reporting brings up the issue of the authenticity of bookkeeping techniques and highlights the requirement for a hypothetical investigation system. The last by and large alludes to the effectiveness of capital markets as a working theory.25 The most generally utilized system includes looking at the impact of a bookkeeping decision, for example, fair value—available value of a specimen of organizations, where the cost is seen as a total measure of future income gauges. The hypothesis of instructive convenience connected with a bookkeeping decision is substantial on the off chance that it is conceivable to set up a critical connection between the bookkeeping decision and the adjustment in the cost or Market to Book Ratio. Since a specific measure of time is required before the utilization of benchmarks can be surveyed, the accessible exact concentrates fundamentally concern either the managing an account segment and, all the more frequently, the impacts of the presentation of SFAS 107 or 115 or the goodwill debilitation value-significance over the post-SFAS 142 administration. Be that as it may, it is now conceivable to make certain determinations in connection to our targets from this work.
Verifiably, lease accounting has been disputable: characterization methods give extension to residents to pick a sought order restricting equivalence of financial statements. As the statement of financial position of a renter with operating leases does exclude an equal resource and obligation, it has gotten to be ordinary for a few clients of accounting reports to valuably underwrite operating leases to decide the proportional effect on the statement of financial position ‘as though they had been named finance leases. Capitalisation may materially affect the outfitting proportions of organizations, as is exhibited in the accompanying case of Qantas. Data separated from the 2009 Qantas preparatory last report and yearly report, which is imitated in the Accounting in center inverse, gives a knowledge into the ramifications of the capitalisation and expensing alternatives passable under AASB 117 for Qantas’ air ship, which are named operating leases. Albeit operating leases are not appeared on the statement of financial position, their comparable quality can be generally decided from the divulgences required by AASB 117. As the intentional data supplied by Qantas in its 2009 preparatory last report shows, the option characterization and accounting treatment would substantially change its influence (adapting) proportion (that is, the relative extents of obligation and value in the capital structure of the organization). Lease accounting is the subject of continuous survey by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). It has a noteworthy undertaking set up and has proposed significant changes to hone. It has contended that all lease contracts make rights and commitments which offer ascent to assets and liabilities that is, the renter perceives a benefit for its entitlement to utilize the leased thing and perceives a risk for its commitment to pay rentals.
A lease is an agreement between a lessor, the proprietor of an advantage, and a resident, a gathering with the privilege to utilize the benefit for a predetermined time of lime consequently for rental installments. AASB 117 para. 4 characterizes a lease as
an assention whereby the lessor passes on to the renter consequently for an installment or arrangement of installments the privilege to utilize a benefit for a concurred timeframe.
The title given to the course of action is not unequivocal in its characterization. For instance, procure buy contracts, which give the hirer of an advantage with a choice to secure title to the benefit upon the satisfaction of concurred conditions, likewise fits inside the meaning of a lease. So also, a game plan that takes the authoritative document of a lease may not be delegated a lease for the reasons for AASB 117, as talked about beneath. Renting is a prominent type of obtaining assets. One or a greater amount of the accompanying points of interest may make renting more alluring than responsibility for resource protection of money (where there is no up front installment the renting course of action completely finances access to the leased resource); settled installments, which keep away from the danger of changes in loan costs; less prohibitive pledges than different types of getting; tax collection favorable circumstances (a lessor may pass tax cuts back to a renter who generally may not he ready to exploit charge motivations); financial reporting focal points (reeling sheet financing, as showed in the accompanying case of Qantas).
AASB 117: Leases applies to all leases including the exchange of a privilege to utilize assets (other than non-regenerative assets), understandings including identifiable impalpable assets, and assentions that are contracts for administrations that exchange the privilege to utilize assets. It likewise limits the estimation of leases to avoid those represented under other accounting gauges; particularly, leases including venture property (AASB 140: Investment Property) and recovering assets (AASB 141: Agriculture).
Leases are named either finance or operating leases. The AASB Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements para. 51, states: In evaluating whether a thing meets the meaning of a benefit, risk or value, consideration should be given to Its basic substance and monetary reality and not only Its authoritative document. Accordingly, for instance, For the situation of finance leases, the substance and financial the truth are that the renter secures the monetary advantages of the utilization of the leased resource (or the significant piece of its helpful life consequently to enter into a commitment to pay for that privilege a sum approximating to the (air estimation of the benefit and the related finance charge. Vence, the finance lease offers ascend to things that fulfill the meaning of a benefit and an obligation and are perceived thusly in the tenant’s monetary record AASB 117 emphasizes the direction gave in the Framework; finance leases exchange significantly the greater part of the dangers and prizes of proprietorship while operating leases don’t. The pertinent definitions from skillet. d of AASB 117 are imitated beneath:
A float:release is a lease that exchanges considerably all the dangers and prizes coincidental to responsibility for resource. Title could conceivably in the long run be exchanged. An operating lease is a lease other than a finance lease.
The prizes of possession identify with the advantages got from utilizing the benefit and any thankfulness in its resale esteem toward the end of the lease. The dangers of possession identify with any failure to determine the full expected advantages from use, devaluation in resale quality, and out of date quality. Title, or proprietorship, is not vital to the meaning of an advantage; it is adequate that the substance controls the advantages anticipated that would spill out of the property (Framework para. 57). At the point when a lease exchanges considerably all the dangers and prizes of proprietorship it is delegated a finance lease and the accounting treatment (perceiving an advantage and risk) will be practically identical to the treatment of a buy of a benefit with obligation financing. As a matter of course, leases that are not finance leases curve operating leases.
Operating lease installments are expensed, ordinarily similarly, over the term of the lease. AASB 117 Para. 33 states
Lease installments under an operating lease might be perceived as a cost on a straight-line premise over the lease term unless another methodical premise is more illustrative of the time example of the client’s advantage.
This guideline applies even where the installments are not set aside a few minutes. As some time recently, the lease installments bar administration charges for upkeep and protection, being represented independently by the renter as costs connected with operations as opposed to finance. Translation 115: Operating Leases—Incentives gives direction on the most proficient method to perceive impetuses in renting game plans. Motivating forces are instigations to go into or restore a renting plan and incorporate money installments by the lessor to the resident, the installment of certain expenses for the benefit of the tenant, (for example, leasehold upgrades), and times of no or diminished rental. The translation requires that the motivators be incorporated into the net thought regardless of how the installments are made, with the renter perceiving the impetuses as a diminishment in rental cost over the term of the lease, again on a straight-line premise, if proper.
Finance leases speak to assets and liabilities of the resident. The advantage mirrors the privilege to utilize the benefit and the risk is a commitment to make future lease installments. At the initiation of the lease term, the benefit and the obligation are perceived at indistinguishable sums (balanced for direct expenses acquired by the tenant). The sum is measured as the lower of reasonable esteem and present estimation of least lease installments (marked down at the understood loan cost or the tenant’s incremental obtaining rate). AASB 117 para. 20 is replicated in full beneath:
At the initiation of the lease term, tenants might perceive finance leases as assets and liabilities in their statements of financial position at sums equivalent to the reasonable estimation of the leased property or, if lower, the present estimation of the base lease installments, each decided at the commencement of the lease. The rebate rate to be utilized as a part of computing the present estimation of the base lease installments is the financing cost understood in the lease. in the event that this is practicable to decide; if not, the renter’s incremental obtaining rate should be utilized. Any underlying direct expenses of the tenant are added to the sum perceived as an advantage.
The lease installments are isolated into interest and key segments as portrayed in AASB 117 para. 25:
Least lease installments should be allotted between the finance charge and the diminishment of the remarkable risk. The finance charge should be distributed to every period amid the lease term in order to deliver a consistent occasional rate of enthusiasm on the remaining equalization of the risk …
In the case of BHP Billiton, company used AASB 117 for its lease accounting. It had both operating and finance lease. In case of finance lease, company had recognized an asset and a subsequent liability. In the case of operating lease, company expensed out the operating lease payments in the income statement.
Conclusion
On the whole it could be said that Fair value is accordingly a business sector based measure. IFRS has progressively called for utilization of fair value estimations in the financial proclamations. This is regularly alluded to as the fair value principle. The issue with this system is that if the installment timetables are not altered in a legitimate assention, it is hard to make exact conjectures of future cash flows. As the timeframe under examination turns out to be more stretched out into the future, the unwavering quality of anticipated cash flows turns out to be more off base.
References
Fair value measurements. (2006). Norwalk, Conn.: Financial Accounting Standards Board of the Financial Accounting Foundation.
Harrison, W. and Horngren, C. (2001). Financial accounting. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Ijiri, Y. (1981). Historical cost accounting and its rationality. [Vancouver, B.C.]: Canadian Certified General Accountants’ Research Foundation.
Jaedicke, R., Ijiri, Y. and Nielsen, O. (1966). Research in accounting measurement. [Madison, Wis.]: American Accounting Association.
Jaedicke, R., Ijiri, Y. and Nielsen, O. (1986). Research in accounting measurement. New York: Garland Pub.
Kimmel, P., Weygandt, J. and Kieso, D. (2007). Financial accounting. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Macdonald, G. (1974). Profit measurement. London: Haymarket Pub.
Magnan, M. and Thornton, D. (2009). Fair value accounting. Montreal, Que.: Center for Interuniversity Research and Analysis on Organizations.
Welsch, G. and Anthony, R. (1977). Fundamentals of financial accounting. Homewood, Ill.: R.D. Irwin.
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