Cross-cultural variation refers to the variations in the cultural among the people in the way the people vary terms of their social behaviour and practices. These variations in the personality and customs of the person affect the type of attachment as well as the way of attachment. According to Ainsworth et al. (2015), the types of attachment vary a lot depending on the cross-cultural practices. It has been observed that developmental psychology has a prolonged and a significant effect on the different types of attachments.
While the cross cultural variations affect the attachments, the various types of attachment are as follows:
Insecure resistant: This is a type of attachment especially in context of a child, in which the child tends to behave adversely, in presence of strangers or in absence of the child’s parents. This form of attachment varies widely with culture. In Japan, a mother rarely leaves her child alone, or in the supervision of anyone, who is a stranger to the child (Bornstein 2013). However, in US, child cress is a popular concept, where infants are left alone with the baby sitters.
Insecure avoidance: This is an attachment style in which the care giver is given least attention and often ignored. This style of attachment is followed mostly by the people of Germany. In Germany, the society and culture prefers independence of the children and least attachment with the parents (Funder 2015). Hence, they prefer insecure avoidance style of attachment. However, in case of Japanese people the children are much more attached to their children and the society accepts this form of attachment. Hence, cross-cultural variations have a significant effect on the attachment.
Separation anxiety: This form of attachment focuses on the response of a person, especially children due to the separation from the carer or parents’. This form of attachment focuses on the distress level of the child, while being separated from the parents. In Japan, since this kind of attachment is not practiced, hence separation anxiety in exceptional cases might result in a big issue. However, in Germany, since independence is given to the children and they are used to stay away from their parents, hence separation anxiety is uncommon and receives least importance.
Stranger anxiety: According to Goldstein 2015, the response of a child on arrival of a stranger on in presence of a stranger is known as stranger anxiety. This is also dependent on the cross-cultural variations.
Reunion behaviour: This attachment type refers to the behaviour of a child when he is reunited with the care giver or the child’s parents. The reunion behaviour is essential to be noted since it reveals the cross-cultural variations.
The Strange situation experiment is an essential experiment that has a significant role to play in analysis of cross-cultural variations and its effects on attachments. In 1970, Ainsworth and Bell had investigated the various styles of attachment by taking one hundred middle class infants. The procedure involving strange situation is as follows:
The mother along with the child was introduced to the experiment room. In the next stage, the child along with the mother is left alone in the room, and the child is observed to investigate the room and the toys. Then, in the next stage, a stranger enters the room and communicates with the mother. After that, the stranger approaches the child. As this happens, the mother of the child leaves the room, leaving the child alone with the stranger. Then, after some times, the mother returns to the room. In the next stage, the mother as well as the stranger leaves the room and the child is left all alone. Then the stranger returns to the room, and plays with the infant. The response of the child is captured. In the last stage, the mother returns to the room and the stranger leaves.
After the experiment is conducted, the following observations are recorded:
Stanger anxiety: This records the distress of the child, as he met the stranger for the first time. This factor is dependent on the cross cultural variations and the child reacts according to the culture in which he belongs to. If the child belongs to the culture where he is often left alone with strangers, then he would face least stranger anxiety. However, if the child is never left alone with a stranger by his parents, then he might react significantly and become increasingly anxious.
Exploration: This records the extent to which the child is ready to explore the toys and the room while he is in presence of the mother. This also refers to the willingness of the child to explore, while his mother was away and the child was left alone with the stranger (Keller 2013).
Separation distress: The reaction of the child, while he is separated from his mother is recorded here. This is dependent on the culture in which the child has been brought up. If the child had been used to stay away from his parents, then separation distress is not faced by the child.
Reunion behaviour: This is the behaviour of the child, how he greets his mother and reacts to the reunion with his mother, after being left alone with the stranger (Pedersen 2013).
Thus, it has been observed that the attachment and attachment types have a strongly associated relation with the variations of culture. The variations in culture are incorporated among the child through the mother and the culture in which he is being brought up. As seen in the above mentioned examples, a Japanese child is never left alone and hence he is likely to react significantly in separation anxiety and in reunion behaviour. However, in case of German children, since they are used to staying at cress, hence are less likely to react significantly to the separation anxiety and reunion behaviour. Thus, it might be concluded that attachment is significantly dependent on the cross-cultural variations, and hence the type of attachment in which a person indulges has its roots in the culture of the person.
Memory is one of the very important parts of any human being for functioning in everyday lifestyle and it also helps in the retention of the experience and the learning. There are mainly three stages of the approaches by which our memory processes: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval.
Encoding is the process of transforming any particular information into a particular special type that can be stored into the memory. Storage deals with the process of holding the information that have being passed on the the memory and saves it, till it is require. Retrieval is the process of taking out the stored information in a particular order when required (Kim et al. 2014).
Multi stored model is a special type of the model that is used for describing the structure and the function of the memory. According to this model, memory can be divided into three different sections namely Sensory, Short term and Long term. Sensory Memory deals with the retention of the information in a long timing that is enough for deciding whether it is required or not for further processing. It can store memory only for one or two seconds.
Short term memories can stores information that can be held acoustically, visually and semantically. It also shows the evidence on the main system of encoding acoustically in short term. Its limitation lies in the capacities of 7+ -2 items of the information, but this number can increase with the using of chunking method, it is a method that breaks the total information and makes it easier for remembering those. The test that measures the capacity of the short term memory of the children, who is slow in reading and writing, is known as Digit Span Test (Hasan, Antonio and Radhakrishnan 2014).
Information of the short term memory can be kept for 30 seconds. While rehearsing the information and recalling the loop are kept in the short term memory. The information those are not being rehearsed gets forgotten by another process called displacement. The technique that helps in the measuring the short term memory is known as Brown-Peterson technique (Norman 2013). In this technique the participants are given trigrams in which they had to recall the amounts that are varying the time from 0-18 seconds. For preventing the rehearsal in the participants, they were asked to perform an interference task in between. After 18 seconds, only 10% of the main trigrams were being recalled for bringing up the new and the average time duration of the memory that is considered as Short term.
Long term memory is part of the memory that have a long and lengthy capacity. The encoding of the long term memory appears mainly as semantic and the entire duration of the long term memory is a lifetime one.
The main and the primary effect that helps in supporting the model of multi store of the memory, as it support the argument of the fact that the long term memory and the short term memory are the two different storages in the memory (Sak, H., Senior, A.W. and Beaufays 2014). Words are being learned long time back are being stored in the long term memory and the word learned freshly gets it position in the short term memory. The words that are being learned in between are easy to forget and do not get enough space for the storage in the memory. These types of words are known as Asymptotes. They are present in the short term memory for a very long time and are not being rehearsed, so they don’t gets space in the long term memory.
The model also supports that the long term and the short term stores are the two different stores. For example, after an accident, if the person lost his long term memory he can still remembers the short term memory. Even if he wants to pass on the information to the long term, he fails to do so. Individuals can only store some special occurrences in his lifetime in the long term memory without any rehearsals.
Multi stored model of the memory can also be criticized in the aspect as it lacks the ecological validity in it and the characteristics that demands. It also criticizes that in the case of motor bike accident, short term memory remains unchanged whereas, long term memory damages. The criticism follows mainly in two different ways: according the multi storage model, it claims memories moves to the long term memory from the short term and gets stored in the section of the long term. In contrast to this issue, it can be seen that the visualized memory remains intact whereas the verbal short term memory can be affected. However it can be suggested that short term memory is not a typical unitary storage but it has several compartments for the processing of the different types of information.
Korsakov’s Syndrome is a type of syndrome in which alcoholic people forgets the short term memory but their long term memory remains unchanged. The separate stores of the memory are the long and the short term is also being proved by the Korsakov’s syndrome as it need to transfer the information from the short term to the long term memory (Miller, Brody and Botvinick 2016).
The strengths of the Multi Store model can be explained, it is the first model that came into the existence on memory and the process of the working of the brain and the storage of the memory. Brain function is one of the critical functional areas in the human physiology. Its damage by any means like accidents can hamper the storage of the memory. Several researches are being conducted for the diagnosis of the short term and long term memory storage.
The weakness of the multi stored model can be explained as over simplified. It mainly focuses on the too much dependence on the rehearsal of the memories. It also deals with the structure and focuses on very little amount on the entire process of the memory management. It fails to explain the relationship between the verbal and the visual memory storage without being focused whether it is a short term or a long term memory (Sainath et al. 2015).
Overall, it can be concluded Multi Stored Model focuses mainly with the different storages of the memory storage. However, it fails to explain the reason of the process by which things are being stored and it is considered as a very simple and does not provide clear idea on the short term as well as the long term memory.
Stress is been faced by every human being in their life. People are being physically and emotionally inundated when they deal with the circumstances as well as stressful situation in their life. Most of the people also felt they have limited amount of resources for dealing with the stress that they are been experiencing (Boss, Bryant and Mancini 2016).
Stress can get enter in the lives of people from various types of situations that make them angry, anxious and frustrated. Every person has different way of seeing the stresses and has different skill to cope up with them. Due to this fact two people will not act in a same way of a similar stress they faced in life (Kerestes and Brkovic 2016). However, all the situations that are been labeled as stressful is negative. For instances child birth, promotion in workplaces are not threatening but people may feel them as stressful as they were not prepared for dealing them.
Stress is considered to be a normal phenomenon in lives of every person. If stress is present in small quantity it is good as it helps to motivate people and help the people to give more productive work. If stress is present in a huge amount it is harmful for people. The perceiving and reacting to stress is significant as it helps in determining the impact in the health of the people.
Stress could be experienced from the four basic sources:
Environment: Environment plays a significant role in an intense as well as competitive way of adjusting the stresses. Examples regarding environment stressors are crowding, noise, weather, traffic, unsafe housing and pollution (Khater, Akhu-Zaheya and Shaban 2014).
Social Stressor: Multiple stressors could be experiences that arise through the demands of various social roles like spouse, employee, parent and caregiver. The examples of social stressor are deadlines, interview for jobs, presentations, financial problems, disagreement, divorce and co-parenting (Levine and Scotch 2013).
Physiological: Circumstances as well as the situations that are greatly affecting the body are termed as physiological stressors. Some examples of physiological stressors are illness, giving birth, lack of exercise, sleep disturbances, poor nutrition, menopuase and adolescence (Stagi et al. 2015).
Thoughts: The interpretations and the perceiving situations that are stressful, difficult and painful are done by brain. There might be some situations in life that provokes stresses. The main role is been played by the thought, which identifies that those stresses may or may not create some problems in life.
Stress is defined as the responses towards the changes that the body makes. It also helps in creating taxing demands. The professionals suggested that there are huge differences lying in between the positive stress and negative stress. Normally people term stresses for describing the situations having negative outcomes (Folkman 2013)). Therefore, it is believed that all stresses are bad, which is not a true fact.
The stresses having following characteristics are termed as positive stresse:
The negative stresses are having the following characteristics:
The categorization of positive and negative stress is difficult as various types of people having different mentality will perceive stresses in different ways. The compilation of negative personal stress is done on a general basis:
The examples of positive stresses are as follows:
Stresses might not be limited to a certain situations as external situations might also cause the occurrences of the sources. The internal stress sources are as follows:
Stresses might also arise due to habitual behavior patterns:
The distressing of emotional feelings that people can feel are anxiety. This is also termed as fear and being nervous. The general reactions due to anxiety are as follows:
Physical Symptoms
Behavior
Mood
Thoughts:
The general ways that people commonly responds when they are inundated with stresses are as follows:
The cognitive response of stresses are as follows:
Cognitive Symptoms
Emotional Symptoms
Physical Symptoms
Behavioral Symptoms
Stress Management is a part of a vast spectrum of the application of the techniques and the psychotherapies that aims in the control of the level of the stress that requires for the control of the normal psychology of a particular person.
Stress can be described both a negative and the positive one. Generally stress is considered as the negative one. Stress management is a solution for recovering from the unwanted situation.
Several mental and physical symptoms can be seen as a resultant of the stress that varies from one person to the other. Initially stress attacks the mental condition and the mental sickness, which is better known as depression can lead to the illness in the physical status of the person.
Stress management if can be handled by the self, then it is considered to be the best option in managing the stress. Self-help is considered one of the best solutions in stress management. The other best possible way for managing the stress is acquiring the help from some health professionals, like psychotherapists or the counselors.
Psychotherapists takes helps of some models and some therapies for managing the stresses. Models like Transactional stress model, innate health model are the basic models that are being used by the professional counselors. The therapies are also taken into consideration by the psychotherapists in order to curing or managing the stress of any individual.
Stresses generally are of two broad types, acute stresses are the most common in the human race. It is a short term stress and it takes very less time to overcome it and does not cause any vital harm to the mental, social ort the physical being of an individual.
The other type of stress that hampers the well being of an individual is the chronic stress. it cannot be cured easily and it is also known as a long term stress. The damage causes by this stress can lead to the severe damage to the individual. The mental damage can leads to the physical damage like memory loss, loss to the spatial recognition and urge towards food intake also reduces and therefore malnutrition follows.
References:
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E. and Wall, S.N., 2015. Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Psychology Press.
Bornstein, M.H., 2013. Cross-cultural perspectives on parenting. Int. Perspect. Psychol. Sci, 2, pp.359-369.
Boss, P., Bryant, C.M. and Mancini, J.A., 2016. Family stress management: A contextual approach. Sage Publications.
Folkman, S., 2013. Stress: appraisal and coping (pp. 1913-1915). Springer New York.
Funder, D.C., 2015. The Personality Puzzle: Seventh International Student Edition. WW Norton & Company.
Goldstein, S., 2015. Cross-cultural explorations: Activities in culture and psychology. Routledge.
Hasan, K.S., Antonio, J.K. and Radhakrishnan, S., 2014. A New Composite CPU/Memory Model for Predicting Efficiency of Multi-core Processing. In The 20th IEEE International Symposium on High Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA-2014) Workshop.
Keller, H., 2013. Attachment and culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(2), pp.175-194.
Keresteš, G. and Brkovi?, I., 2016, January. General life stress of parents of adolescents: Its sources and relationship with parenting. In 37th STAR Conference.
Khater, W., Akhu-Zaheya, L. and Shaban, I., 2014. Sources of stress and coping behaviours in clinical practice among baccalaureate nursing students. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(6), pp.194-202.
Kim, H., De Niz, D., Andersson, B., Klein, M., Mutlu, O. and Rajkumar, R., 2014, April. Bounding memory interference delay in COTS-based multi-core systems. In Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium (RTAS), 2014 IEEE 20th (pp. 145-154). IEEE.
Lengacher, C.A., Shelton, M.M., Reich, R.R., Barta, M.K., Johnson-Mallard, V., Moscoso, M.S., Paterson, C., Ramesar, S., Budhrani, P., Carranza, I. and Lucas, J., 2014. Mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR (BC)) in breast cancer: evaluating fear of recurrence (FOR) as a mediator of psychological and physical symptoms in a randomized control trial (RCT). Journal of behavioral medicine, 37(2), pp.185-195.
Levine, S. and Scotch, N.A. eds., 2013. Social stress. AldineTransaction.
Miller, K.J., Brody, C.D. and Botvinick, M.M., 2016. Identifying Model-Based and Model-Free Patterns in Behavior on Multi-Step Tasks. bioRxiv, p.096339.
Norman, D.A. ed., 2013. Models of human memory. Elsevier.
Pedersen, P.B., 2013. Cross-cultural counseling and psychotherapy. Cross-Cultural Counseling and Psychotherapy: Pergamon General Psychology Series, 93, p.312.
Sainath, T.N., Vinyals, O., Senior, A. and Sak, H., 2015, April. Convolutional, long short-term memory, fully connected deep neural networks. In Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), 2015 IEEE International Conference on (pp. 4580-4584). IEEE.
Sak, H., Senior, A.W. and Beaufays, F., 2014, September. Long short-term memory recurrent neural network architectures for large scale acoustic modeling. In Interspeech (pp. 338-342).
Shapero, B.G., Black, S.K., Liu, R.T., Klugman, J., Bender, R.E., Abramson, L.Y. and Alloy, L.B., 2014. Stressful life events and depression symptoms: the effect of childhood emotional abuse on stress reactivity. Journal of clinical psychology, 70(3), pp.209-223.
Stagl, J.M., Antoni, M.H., Lechner, S.C., Bouchard, L.C., Blomberg, B.B., Glück, S., Derhagopian, R.P. and Carver, C.S., 2015. Randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioral stress management in breast cancer: A brief report of effects on 5-year depressive symptoms. Health Psychology, 34(2), p.176.
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