Cumulative Incidence Supplemental Measures In Australia’s Increasing Imprisonment Rates

Discussion

Discuss About The Cumulative Incidence Supplemental Measures.

Australia has been experiencing the highest rate of imprisonment in last few decades. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) released the data showing almost 40,577 people on average received the punishment of imprisonment in Australia during the first quarter of the year 2017. This estimation is close to almost 140% increase in the incarceration, which cannot simply be explained as the increasing crime rates (Russell & Baldry, 2017). The study will thus create the knowledgeable insights to understand the primary factors of such increasing rate of the imprisonments during 2016. The essay will also highlight the overview of the demographical factors in terms of ensuring the increasing rates of the gender and indigenous status. The development of the theoretical findings will help in developing the fruitful insights related to criminal offense in the society.

Over the past decade, the prison population in Australia has grown about almost 20%. The report presented by Productivity Commissions on government service highlights that the rate of the national adult imprisonment rate reached up to 190 per 100,000 people during the years of 2014-2015, which was higher than the year 2005/2006 when the rate was 158 per 100,000 people (Van Geelen et al., 2017). This imprisonment rate is much higher among the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, which are almost 2196 per 100,000 people. The non-indigenous imprisonment is lesser in compare to the indigenous imprisonment rate and that is up to 139 per 100,000 populations. Among all the states in Australia, Tasmania has the lower rate in imprisonment (Jeffries & Newbold, 2016). There are many arguments raised in describing the causes of the increasing rate of imprisonments. The Australian Crime Commissions identified six key drivers for such growing rates of incarceration. These causes are money laundering, identity crime, criminal exploitation of business structure, cybercrime and technology-enabled crime, public sector corruption, and violence. Each of the factors has the significant role in facilitating the organized crime. Rhodes et al., (2017) explained that such types of crimes would not be necessary if the committed and concealment of the crime proceeds in the illicit profit had not involved. In support of this statement, Freiberg (2016) stated that such activities like identity crime, money laundering, violence, and corruption significantly contributes to the other types of organized crimes. Wood (2015) criticized this fact by stating that not every enablers are present in the illicit market. It is also highlighted that enablers often work in unison or other crime groups that use various enabler at once.  Farley and Hopkins (2017) put forward the idea that enablers have the significant contribution towards resonating through the entire illicit markets that are associated with different types of enabling activities. The law enforcements, policy activity, or the regulatory legislatives are generally imposed to prevent such enablers. The crime like money laundering is increasing much considerably in the transnational enterprises. Lauchs and Keane (2017) defined that the complicated transnational money laundering nature is another key driver of organized crime that employs the professional money laundering syndicates. The conceptual analysis of the social capital is sometimes discussed as the writer social networks that develop understanding about the value of achieving mutual benefits within a community.  On the other hand, the illicit funds in the financial crime are driven by the complex series of fund transfers through various jurisdictions (Justiceandpeace.org.au, 2018). It is noticeable that the diverse and complex investment vehicle suites across the international and domestic market are increasing the market share, which is quite attractive for money laundering crimes. () argued that the security markets have the capability to afford high anonymity investors, especially when the trading is done through the professional brokers. It is also notable that the virtual curriers like Bitcoin have become the means of transferring the value online without relying on the financial institutes that facilitate transactions (Caama.com.au, 2018). These practices are giving rise to the crimes due to which the imprisonment is growing higher.

Demographic Overview

It is identified that the most increasing rate of the imprisonment is seen in the Aboriginal and indigenous group. Wood (2014) stated that many of the prisoners are held on remand who have not been charge and not granted bail, but not found guilty either are kept in the prisons. The latest data published by ABS shows that almost 33% of the total prison population in Australia is on remand due to which the rate of the incarceration is increasing deliberately (Acic.gov.au, 2015). Taylor (2011) identified that the increasing rate of the arrests resulting in conviction is also a considerable factor for the imprisonment in Australia. Many of the indigenous Australians experience depression, exclusion from education, removal from employment due to which they often commits the crimes. On the other hand, Dawes et al., (2017) pointed out that the over-policing of the indigenous people with cognitive and mental disability, greater severity by the criminal justice system in treating the offenders from indigenous group, and institutional discriminations are increasing the incarceration rate. Brown et al., (2016) suggested that the rapid growth of the women prisoners is also increasing rate of the imprisonment in Australia. The conceptual analysis of the social capital is sometimes discussed as the writer social networks that develop understanding about the value of achieving mutual benefits within a community. It is notable that almost 77% increasing rates are visible in women imprisonment. The increasing rate of the indigenous women prisoners is supposedly attributed due to the increased policing and difficult sentencing regimes.

The imprisonment in Australia defines many of the demographic overview of the prisoners based in terms of gender and indigenous status. The Australian Bureau of Statistics, ABS Census of Population and Housing, the ABS Corrective Service, and National Aboriginal and Torres Strait together conducted a survey that presents the brief overview of the current situation related the demographic segments of the prisoners in Australia. The report presented by ABS indicates that the adults of 18 years old all over territories and states are in remand except the ones who are 17 years old and over. Many of these adults are even sentenced to stay in the custody of the corrective service agency in Australia (Shepherd et al., 2017). In the year of 2014, the majority of the adult prisoners scored the highest indigenous imprisonment rates, which were almost 3,013 per 100,000 adult populations. This ratio was followed by almost 2,390 per 100,000 people in Northern Territory whereas the ratio was almost 2,016 per 100,000 people in South Australia. The data presented by ABS in 2014 reflects that majority of the indigenous prisoners were incarcerated in Australia. Especially, in the Northern territory, there is the significant growth in the indigenous group imprisonment since the year of 2010. In the year 2014, the highest recorded incarceration rate reached up to 2,390 per 100,000 adult among the indigenous people (Russell &  Baldry, 2017). The distribution between the age and sex of the indigenous and non-indigenous people is also highlighted in the report. It was notable that median age for the indigenous males in the incarceration was 32.5 years whereas females were 33.2 years. However, it even highlighted the cluster of indigenous females in Northern Territory between the age group of 25-29 years. If it is compared, it can be seen that the median age of these imprisoned females was 31.5 years.

Impact on Remote Communities

In spite of presenting the report of the age group, gender, and the indigenous status of the prisoners, Jeffries & Newbold (2016) argued that there are some of the potential impacts created on the individual remote communities that include economic, social, and demographic impacts. Based on this focus, the complete data of imprisonment represents the amount of men and women, which is excluded from the individual communities at some point. On the other hand, it is also argue that the impact of the demographic segment open the community with an average structure of the demographic zone sometimes create the significant experience for demonstrating the potential efficiency of this community. Freiberg (2016) commenced by stating that the current International knowledge based on the social impact and community aspects from imprisonment clarifies the focus on the indigenous people.

From an academic point of view develops the understanding based on impacts created on the incarceration of the indigenous people, especially in the remote areas. Some of the existing studies based on the findings point out the effects of paternal and maternal incarceration on their children. In addition to this the financial cost as well as the social consequences is also concerned with this issue especially among the families and communities. Farley and Hopkins (2017) stated that there is the increasing strain, socialization issues, and stigmatization prevails the consequences of both maternal and paternal imprisonment, more while transiting from adolescence to adulthood. The law enforcements, policy activity, or the regulatory legislatives are generally imposed to prevent such enablers. The crime like money laundering is increasing much considerably in the transnational enterprises. The conceptual analysis of the social capital is sometimes discussed as the writer social networks that develop understanding about the value of achieving mutual benefits within a community. Concentrating on the Australian context, it is noticeable that the social capital associated with the indigenous communities is generally undermined due to the imprisonment. Wood (2015) pointed out that the imprisonment perception creates the impact on economic, social, and health indicators. Based on this concept, the indigenous people are treated differently than are non-indigenous people. This division ensures that the aboriginal communities are generally fragmented. This significant effect creates the political issues due to which there is the central to the self determination content lies within Australian colonial context. Lauchs & Keane (2017) suggested that the accumulative effects from incarceration and criminalization of the indigenous people may lead to create a new generation of the criminal indigenous community.

Conclusion

It is evident that the absence of the people who are the Democratic Republic of the individual communities may create the potential detrimental consequences, especially in a context of smaller communities. Taylor (2011) conducted an extensive research on this aspect and informed that the parental imprisonment are reflected among the children and young adults. The law enforcements, policy activity, or the regulatory legislatives are generally imposed to prevent such enablers. The crime like money laundering is increasing much considerably in the transnational enterprises. It is also considered as the experience for the children that includes abuse, stigmatization, violence, behavioral issues, and discrimination. In addition to this, the crime related to the drug abuse or sexual activity also considered quite important in this context.

Conclusion

The essay discusses the reasons for increasing rate of the imprisonment in Australia. The study develops the overview of the demographical factors in terms of ensuring the increasing rates of the gender and indigenous status. Productivity Commissions on government service highlights that the rate of the national adult imprisonment rate reached up to 190 per 100,000 people during the years of 2014-2015, which was higher than the year 2005/2006 when the rate was 158 per 100,000 people. The crime like money laundering is increasing much considerably in the transnational enterprises. The latest data published by ABS shows that almost 33% of the total prison population in Australia is on remand due to which the rate of the incarceration is increasing deliberately. The data presented by ABS in 2014 reflects that majority of the indigenous prisoners were incarcerated in Australia. Especially, in the Northern territory, there is the significant growth in the indigenous group imprisonment since the year of 2010. It is also argue that the impact of the demographic segment open the community with an average structure of the demographic zone sometimes create the significant experience for demonstrating the potential efficiency of this community. The extensive research based on this context determines that there is the increasing strain, socialization issues, and stigmatization prevails the consequences of both maternal and paternal imprisonment, more while transiting from adolescence to adulthood. The conceptual analysis of the social capital is sometimes discussed as the writer social networks that develop understanding about the value of achieving mutual benefits within a community.

References

Acic.gov.au, (2015). Organised Crimes in Australia. Available from https://www.acic.gov.au/sites/g/files/net1491/f/2016/06/oca2015.pdf Accessed on 21 May 2018.

Brown, D., Cunneen, C., Schwartz, M., Stubbs, J., & Young, C. (2016). Justice reinvestment: Winding back imprisonment. Springer.

Caama.com.au, (2018). Proposed Changes for the Australian Justice System to reduce Aboriginal Incarceration rates. Available from https://caama.com.au/news/2018/law-council-of-australiaAccessed on 21 May 2018.

Dawes, G., Davidson, A., Walden, E., & Isaacs, S. (2017). Keeping on country: Understanding and responding to crime and recidivism in remote Indigenous communities. Australian Psychologist, 52(4), 306-315.

Farley, H., & Hopkins, S. (2017). The prison is another country: incarcerated students and (im) mobility in Australian prisons. Critical Studies in Education, 58(2), 150-167.

Freiberg, A. (2016). The Road Well Traveled in Australia: Ignoring the Past, Condemning the Future. Crime and Justice, 45(1), 419-457.

Jeffries, S., & Newbold, G. (2016). Analysing trends in the imprisonment of women in Australia and New Zealand. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 23(2), 184-206.

Justiceandpeace.org.au, (2018). Incarceration in Australia: Detention of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. Available from https://justiceandpeace.org.au/incarceration-of-indigenous-people/ Accessed on 21 May 2018

Lauchs, M., & Keane, R. (2017). An analysis of the Australian illicit tobacco market. Journal of Financial Crime, 24(1), 35-47.

Rhodes, W., Gaes, G. G., Luallen, J., Kling, R., Rich, T., & Cutler, C. (2017). Incidence and Cumulative Incidence as Supplemental Measures of the Scale of Imprisonment. Crime & Delinquency, 0011128717731998.

Russell, S. & Baldry, E. (2017). In charts: How Australia’s prisoner population is booming. Available from https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-14/australias-booming-prison-population-in-three-charts/8616876 Accessed on 21 May 2018.

Shepherd, S. M., Ogloff, J. R., Shea, D., Pfeifer, J. E., & Paradies, Y. (2017). Aboriginal prisoners and cognitive impairment: the impact of dual disadvantage on Social and Emotional Wellbeing. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 61(4), 385-397.

Taylor, A. (2011). Current evidence of ‘female flight’ from remote Northern Territory Aboriginal communities – demographic and policy implications, Migration Letters, 8(2), 77-89.

Van Geelen, T., Longton, G., Sukumar, P., Raya, R., Lim, K., Desoe, G., & Archbold, C. (2017). Submission to the Australian Law Reform Commission Inquiry into Indigenous Incarceration Rates

Wood, W. R. (2015). Why restorative justice will not reduce incarceration. British Journal of Criminology, 55(5), 883-900.

Wood, W.R. (2014). Justice Reinvestment in Australia, Victims & Offenders: An International Journal of Evidence-based Research, Policy, and Practice, 9(1), 100-119.