History of Diphtheria infection
Diphtheria is a very infectious disease which majorly disturbs the upper respiratory track and it is categorized by sore throat, fever and an adherent membrane on the tonsils and nasopharynx. Diphtheria may also cause effects on the skin and create skin infections like cutaneous diphtheria. Huge number of infection with diphtheria can cause systemic involvement and also disturb other body parts such as nervous system and heart. It may lead to death if not treated properly. It is generally caused by bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheria.
Diphtheria was initially defined by Hippocrates in the fifth century BC and during history, diphtheria has become a prime reason of death majorly found in children. It was first recognized inn 1800s by F. Loffler, and the antitoxin against diphtheria was further established in the 1890s. The growth of the principal diphtheria toxoid vaccine took place in 1920s and its consequent extensive use led to a histrionic downfall of diphtheria across the entire globe (Konrad et al., 2011).
However, the execution of vaccination courses has importantly reduced the occurrences of diphtheria but severe outbursts may take place when those vaccinations rates get smaller. One such outbursts took place in the 1990z in the Russian Federation and the Newly Independent States of the former Soviet Union, where the World Health Organization (WHO) stated over 157,000 cases and 5,000 deaths because of diphtheria. Even though, still endemic in several portions of the globe, respiratory diphtheria in the US is recently an erratic disease which has majorly been disregarded by effective vaccinations programs (Burkovski, 2016).
Background evidence among the Rohingya refugees from Myanmar to Bangladesh
Few 420,000 Rohingya Muslims, a spiritual and ethnic marginal community in Myanmar, have escaped to neighboring Bangladesh since August in the current year. The UN has described the Rohingya as the world’s most victimized minority segments and it also stated the outrages by Myanmar’s powers that be traditional purging where by single segment eliminates other ethnic or spiritual groups by fierceness. However, the pursuit of the Rohingya is not fresh. It was earlier found since the year 1948 when the country gained liberation against British immigrants.
Many like recent terrorists, the rebels at the time were known as Muja hid or involved in fight and Jihad. It was necessary to figure out that the international community and groups has never approved on how to describe terrorism. The lawful meaning can easily vary from country to country as politics commands its contours. Every officials can practice its importance as a defense against even legal political competitors. The scarcity of consensus shows disagreement about what is legal, when and by whom.
In the year 1962, an armed overthrow terminated in a single party military state where democratic supremacy was miserably missing. Over the next 60 years of military statute, things got worse for the Rohingya. The authorities saw the marginal segments as a fear to nationalist identity (Azad and Jasmin, 2013).
Shouting them foreigners, the army slayed, contrived and raped. They ended Rohingya communal and political Organizations and transferred isolated Rohingya business to government, devastating the group monetarily. Additionally, the Rohingya agonized forced labor, arbitrary custody and physical attacks. In 1991 and 1992, over 250,000 tried to escape to Bangladesh.
Current situation of Diphtheria infection among the Rohingya refugees
According to the given case study, it was found that over 110 cases which consists of 6 deaths which have been clinically identified by health partners which include Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) and the International Federation of the Red Cross (IFRC). This population suffers from the low vaccination which may create other diseases such as like cholera, measles, rubella, and diphtheria stated by the doctor from Bangladesh. Many people were protected with oral cholera vaccine and measles rubella vaccine. Now it was time to face the problem of diphtheria. In 2017, over 624,000 people bolting ferocity in neighboring Myanmar had collected in heavily occupied impermanent settlements with unfortunate entrance to clean water, hygiene and health services – and the statistics continued to swell. WHO is working to prevent such issues by providing affective treatment plans. They are also ensuring the supply of medicines, helping patients to diagnose, organizing a vaccination, and targeting children by aiming with pentavalent (DPT-HepB-Hib) and pneumococcal vaccines. WHO has also acquired 1000 vials of diphtheria antitoxins which protects the life of already infected patients by defusing the contagions formed by the fatal bacteria (Rahman, 2018).
Major Highlights
The recent Humanitarian catastrophe apparently initiated with an attack on police supports by the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army, a new-fangled insurrection group. Rohingya refugees living in Bangladesh said Human Rights Watch that Myanmar government forces had passed out armed attacks, and scorched their families and homes. In totaling to this, they also decapitated men, raped women and killed children. Ten out of thousands of Rohingya have become inside moved from one place to another. Furthermore, earlier to this problem and crisis, 120,000 evacuated Rohingya had been existing in confinement camps (Kimberlin, Brady, Jackson and Long, 2015).
Amnesty International stated that there are signs that powers that be in Myanmar have also located unlawful landmines at sites generally used by refugees. Among these murdered were majorly two children. What is additional, international humanitarian support has been congested, averting inevitabilities like food, water and medicine from getting a section of a million individuals.
Evaluation of different public health approaches
Epidemic diphtheria is always misunderstood and proved to be a challenge for both developing as well as developed countries. There are huge number of public health approaches which describe the disease very minutely. Some of the public health approaches are health education, immunization, screening, surveillance, environmental controls (Shann, 2010). The knowledge of effects of the diphtheria must be given to every individual so that they can take care of themselves along with their family members. Diphtheria, being a serious issue must be discussed and treated properly because it may sometimes lead to death. One of the best public health approach to describe the effects of Diphtheria infection is surveillance (Byard, 2013).
The main part of the laboratory is the delivery of modest, speedy and dependable approaches to support clinicians in following a clinical diagnosis. In large number of radical cases and reports of the diphtheria disease, the clinical diagnosis will generally go before micro biologic diagnosis. On the other hand, it is occasionally often problematic to diagnose diphtheria clinically and it becomes an issue to find out the accurate solution to it. Such problem is usually found in the countries where diphtheria is rarely found (Relyveld, 2011). Diphtheria is generally jumbled with other conditions like serious streptococcal sore throat, Vincent’s angina, or glandular fever. Consequently, precise and reliable microbiologic diagnosis is very important and it is always considered as being the most crucial to clinical diagnosis. The laboratory might also support the clinician by reducing the suspected reports and cases or contacts from later clinical research, thus preventing unimportant treatment or control measures such as isolation (Halperin et al., 2012).
Figure: Algorithm for laboratory diagnosis of diphtheria. EIA, enzyme immunoassay; PCR, polymerase chain reaction.
For microbiologic and epidemiologic investigation, it is very important that the laboratory get the subsequent knowledge and evidence for every sample from doubted circumstances, contact numbers and exporters which include name, age, sex; name of hospital to which the patient was earlier admitted; name of the physician who used to take care of the patient; details of the laboratory which will include basis of specimen, date collected; detail information of clinical which will include symptoms, onset date and treatment regime; epidemiologic information which will include circumstance, contact and exporter; and immunization and travel histories (Farrar et al., 2013).
Methods for the Laboratory Diagnosis of Diphtheria
Promptness attached with reliability and exactitude is very important in diagnosing the effects of diphtheria but the series of inquiries and research will be totally dependent on the obtainability of reagents, experience of laboratory staffs and members, and monetary resources. The figure mentioned shows the micro biologic processes for the inspections of specimens (Zakikhany and Efstratiou, 2012). The initial step in laboratory diagnosis is to gain suitable clinical samples from the tolerant. Strategies for the assembly of samples on lint from assumed causes of diphtheria circumstances and for the conveyance of the lint have been reported. In circumstances related to assume respiratory diphtheria, examples must be gained from the throat or nasopharynx. In case of cutaneous disease, trials must be gained from any wound or skin injuries. If existing, membranous material must also be properly evaluated and inspected. In adding to this, care must be taken in order to obtain material underneath the membrane. Specimen should be transferred to the laboratory very quick because speedy immunization of distinct beliefs broadcasting is important (Berger, Hogardt, Konrad and Sing, 2014).
Analysis of different intervention strategies to control the infection from spreading
There are large number of controlling strategies which must be followed to control the effects of diphtheria infections. Detailed treatment along with antibiotics and an antidote to the toxin must be easily accessible. Some of strategies which must be taken under consideration while dealing with the patient suffering from diphtheria are mentioned below.
Consequences of Diphtheria
There is severe effect on the physical health of the patient if he or she is suffering from the disease called Diphtheria. Some of the major results of the disease are mentioned below.
Conclusion
Thus, from the above report, it can be concluded that Diphtheria is a communicable disease produced by bacteria that generally produce exotoxins that injury human tissue. Serious infections can easily affect other parts of the human body such as heart, liver, kidney and the nervous system. In addition to this, few patients suffering from diphtheria disease can also suffer from skin infections. Exotoxin generated by the bacteria is a crucial element in causing diphtheria’s more serious symptoms (Thrusfield, 2018). Furthermore, it can also be summarized that diphtheria can also be cured of proper corrective actions and measures are followed by the infected patients. Even though, still endemic in several portions of the globe, respiratory diphtheria in the US is recently an erratic disease which has majorly been disregarded by active vaccinations programs. There are huge number of public health approaches which describe the disease very minutely such as health education, immunization, screening, surveillance, environmental controls and surveillance is treated to be one of the best approach.
Apart from all the causes, effects and symptoms of the diphtheria disease, there are few suggestions which must be followed that will help in curing the patient and reduce the chances of transferring it from one person to another. WHO suggests a 3 dosage principal vaccination sequence with diphtheria toxoid which must be surveyed by a supporter dose.
References
Aaby, P., Ravn, H. and Benn, C.S., 2016. The WHO review of the possible nonspecific effects of Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis Vaccine. The Pediatric infectious disease journal, 35(11), pp.1247-1257.
Azad, A. and Jasmin, F., 2013. Durable solutions to the protracted refugee situation: The case of Rohingyas in Bangladesh. Journal of Indian Research, 1(4), pp.25-35.
Berger, A., Hogardt, M., Konrad, R. and Sing, A., 2014. Detection methods for laboratory diagnosis of diphtheria. In Corynebacterium diphtheria and related toxigenic species (pp. 171-205). Springer, Dordrecht.
Burkovski, A., 2016. Corynebacterium diphtheria and related toxigenic species. Springer.
Byard, R.W., 2013. Diphtheria–‘The strangling angel ‘of children. Journal of forensic and legal medicine, 20(2), pp.65-68.
Farrar, J., Hotez, P.J., Junghanss, T., Kang, G., Lalloo, D. and White, N.J., 2013. Manson’s Tropical Diseases E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Germanier, R. ed., 2012. Bacterial vaccines. Academic Press.
Giesecke, J., 2017. Modern infectious disease epidemiology. CRC Press.
Guiso, N., Berbers, G., Fry, N.K., He, Q., Rifleman, M. and von König, C.W., 2011. What to do and what not to do in serological diagnosis of pertussis: recommendations from EU reference laboratories. European journal of clinical microbiology & infectious diseases, 30(3), pp.307-312.
Halperin, S.A., Bettinger, J.A., Greenwood, B., Harrison, L.H., Jelfs, J., Ladhani, S.N., McIntyre, P., Ramsay, M.E. and Sáfadi, M.A., 2012. The changing and dynamic epidemiology of meningococcal disease. Vaccine, 30, pp.B26-B36.
Kimberlin, D.W., Brady, M.T., Jackson, M.A. and Long, S.S., 2015. Red Book, (2015): 2015 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. American academy of pediatrics.
Konrad, R., Berger, A., Huber, I., Boschert, V., Hörmansdorfer, S., Busch, U., Hogardt, M., Schubert, S. and Sing, A., 2010. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry as a tool for rapid diagnosis of potentially toxigenic Corynebacterium species in the laboratory management of diphtheria-associated bacteria. Euro surveillance, 15(43), p.19699.
Malito, E. and Rappouli, R., 2013. History of diphtheria vaccine development. Corynebacterium diphtheria and Related Toxigenic Species: Genomics, Pathogenicity and Applications, p.225.
Rahman, M.R., 2018. Rohingya Crisis–Health issues. Delta Medical College Journal, 6(1), pp.1-3.
Relyveld, E.H., 2011. A history of toxoids. In History of Vaccine Development (pp. 57-64). Springer, New York, NY.
Shann, F., 2010. The non-specific effects of vaccines. Archives of disease in childhood, 95(9), pp.662-667.
Thrusfield, M., 2018. Veterinary epidemiology. John Wiley & Sons.
Ullah, A.A., 2011. Rohingya refugees to Bangladesh: Historical exclusions and contemporary marginalization. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 9(2), pp.139-161.
Zakikhany, K. and Efstratiou, A., 2012. Diphtheria in Europe: current problems and new challenges. Future microbiology, 7(5), pp.595-607.
Essay Writing Service Features
Our Experience
No matter how complex your assignment is, we can find the right professional for your specific task. Contact Essay is an essay writing company that hires only the smartest minds to help you with your projects. Our expertise allows us to provide students with high-quality academic writing, editing & proofreading services.
Free Features
Free revision policy
$10Free bibliography & reference
$8Free title page
$8Free formatting
$8How Our Essay Writing Service Works
First, you will need to complete an order form. It's not difficult but, in case there is anything you find not to be clear, you may always call us so that we can guide you through it. On the order form, you will need to include some basic information concerning your order: subject, topic, number of pages, etc. We also encourage our clients to upload any relevant information or sources that will help.
Complete the order form
Once we have all the information and instructions that we need, we select the most suitable writer for your assignment. While everything seems to be clear, the writer, who has complete knowledge of the subject, may need clarification from you. It is at that point that you would receive a call or email from us.
Writer’s assignment
As soon as the writer has finished, it will be delivered both to the website and to your email address so that you will not miss it. If your deadline is close at hand, we will place a call to you to make sure that you receive the paper on time.
Completing the order and download