Discuss about the Embedded Electromechanical Impedance Sensors.
Inationwide investment and their structures have longer service life as evaluated to additional commercial products. The prototypes into civil engineering and the structure is lead to innovative in terms of design with construction. The important structure of civil engineering includes of bridges, buildings and dams. Yaphary et al. (2017) demonstrated that the civil structures are equipped with Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) for ensuring of structural integrity as well as safety. SHM aims to develop of automated systems for monitoring, tear down inspection and damage detection of the civil structures (Tao et al. 2016). SHM system provides real time information, detects defects and monitoring of stress and temperature. It is required to monitor for ensuring of safety and tough service life. SHM system consists of three components such as sensor, data processing and health evaluation system. The first step to set up the system is to integrate of level of consistent structural sensing ability.
Chopra, Nigam and Pandey (2015) cited that SHM system is based on civil structure which allows remote monitoring with handling of automated system over inspection cycle to reduce down time. The main focus of this paper is to replace of current cycle to inspect with monitoring system which tends to increase damage probability before catastrophic failures (Amezquita-Sanchez et al. 2014). Incidents such as collapse of building are rise into various parts of the world with little warning before it occurs. Due to increase into total number of building incidents, it becomes important to develop detection methods for reduction of buildings damage. Wang, Paur and Ravikovitch (2017) mentioned that buildings as well as critical infrastructure are being monitored such as patient into the hospital, signs for degradation, impeding disability and collapses. The sensors are used to maintain and know the current state of the building structure and technologies to analyze its current situation. Grauer and Morelli (2013) stated that intelligent sensors as well as technologies are used to diverse array of the data and create of structural picture of the buildings that help to determine early detection of the damage due to natural hazards.
The aim of this paper is based on research for designing of SHM for the applications of civil engineering. In this paper, it analyzed piezoelectric based sensing techniques for the civil engineering structures such as buildings. The structural design of the building is based on various sensing methods which hold of strengths and weakness to conduct of the building materials. It uses of insulation materials with damage to fibers. The other aim is to analyze the sensor functionality with the service time with extreme loading events. There are various effects that provide consequence on wave’s propagation with change of measured impedance spectrum. This research study is based on effects where both structure bonding as well as sensor is based on techniques which consist of host structure to monitor the services. Different types of methods are used for health monitoring of the buildings. The main aspect of this paper is to analyze piezoelectric sensor for civil engineering applications.
Following are the questions which are required to analyze in this paper:
The structures of Civil engineering have longer life of service and are very impossible to change the structure or replace them once they are made. Yan et al. (2017) stated that the civil structures that are built can deteriorate any time before they are expected to. The structures mainly deteriorate because of overload, environmental erosion, inspection methods, aging, maintenance lack, excessive use and many more. Civil engineering for SHM (Structural Health Monitoring) system that is effective can diagnose the defects and location in real time (Hu, X., Zhu and Wang 2014).This can help to repair the structure and reinforce them in time so that the safety and structural integrity can be ensured. Methods of SHM (Structural Health Monitoring) systems are applied to structures of civil engineering and to their components at present time.
Banerji, Bagchi and Khazaeli (2016) argued that it includes static displacement, methods of identification, testing and also non- destructive method of testing such as acoustic emission, impedance, X-ray, pulse radar, thermal imaging and ultrasonic. The methods of Structural Health Monitoring System are mostly qualitative and are difficult to carry out. Talakokula, Bhalla and Gupta (2014) demonstrated that the materials that are smart include optical fiber sensor, intelligent composites that are cement based, materials of magneto astrictive and piezoelectric materials. These methods are used to provide a new process that is long term and real time civil engineering structures of health monitoring. According to Annamdas and Soh (2016) these materials have sensing technology, driving and sensing function both together, and they can be integrated with civil structure to build an intelligent structural system. Composition of the signal processing, user interface, interpretation software of signal is all included in system of structural health detection (Wymore et al. 2015). Out of all the materials, the piezoelectric material that are represented by only piezoelectric ceramics have the most integrated driving and sensing integration which make the SHM (Structural Health Monitoring) suitable to do all the processes.
The phenomenon of Piezoelectricity deals with changing mechanical energy to electrical energy and also vice-versa. The material which possesses piezoelectricity generates electrical charge after the application of mechanical pressure on that material. The vice-versa also happens that when a material gets a geometric change when electric charge is applied on the material. Banerji, Bagchi and Khazaeli (2016) stated the materials of piezoelectric include piezoelectric ceramics, Piezoelectricity Ceramics, piezoelectricity polymers and Polymer composites are used in piezoelectric actuators and the sensors of piezoelectric that are needed for SHM (Structural Health Monitoring) and also for structural repair.
There is advantage sand disadvantages of each type of materials that are used in piezoelectric (Zou et al. 2015).The advantages of piezoelectric materials are: Ceramics are very less expensive and are more fabricated than the polymers. The ceramics have excellent electromechanical coupling and have very high dielectric constants. They are very flexible and are the polymer composites and ceramic of piezoelectric are considered to have superior properties in comparison to materials of single phase (Leung et al. 2015). The disadvantages of piezoelectric are: The ceramics are brittle and stiff. The monolithic ceramics cannot be coated on any curved surface which gives a limitation to the flexibility of design of the transducer. The polymers of piezoelectric have less dielectric constant and very low electromechanical coupling. The polymers and the ceramics of piezoelectric have impedance, intermediate dielectric constant and very less spurious mode.
All civil infrastructures, industrial structures, residential buildings are the most common concrete structures that are available now-a-days. Annamdas, Bhalla and Soh (2017) concluded the life of all such concrete structures gets affected and constantly degraded by different factors such as fatigue, natural disasters, aging and corrosion throughout their life. The degradation that occurs to the structures reduces the disaster resistance ability of the structure and can also lead to full collapse of the structure or may lead to partial failure of the concrete building (Zhang, Lie and Xiang 2013). The safety of property and life of people faces the threat for such accidents if occurs. To mitigate such threat that arrives in the structure, technology of health monitoring in concrete structures is considered as the most important research areas in present days (Lim et al. 2017). Good results have been received from the transducers of piezo ceramic for health monitoring in concrete structures. The SHM (Structural Health Monitoring) that are based on piezoelectric are mainly classified into two categories: passive monitoring and active monitoring. For methods of damage diagnosis, technology of active monitoring can further be divided into two parts, stress wave based method and mechanical impedance wave based method.
The wave based method depends on the principle to use the sensing property of piezoelectric ceramics so that the actuators that are sensor based are established in the inside structures (Basu et al. 2014). The diagnosis and the identification of the difference between the current signal and the original signal are analyzed and scanned by this process. A new sensor which is known as smart aggregate is embedded in the piezo ceramic patch inside a small block of concrete that is same as the real aggregate that were previously used to monitor the concrete structure’s health. Baptista et al. (2014) stated that with the new sensor aggregate, the cracks that occur in the concrete structure can be detected and can be effective monitored with monitoring methods that are sensor based. The method of mechanical impedance is used for monitoring the local damage that occurs in the structure. This can be done by comparing the value of mechanical impedance of a structure that is affected or damaged with a structure that is perfectly healthy (Chopra, Nigam and Pandey 2015).
The technology of SHM (Structural Health Monitoring) that are traditional mainly uses wired network for the collection of data. The traditional method of SHM had an advantage ability of good anti interference. The disadvantage of the traditional methods of SHM is that the system uses large amount of cables and also uses manpower (Talakokula, Bhalla and Gupta 2014). This increases the complexity of wiring and also increase the maintenance cost because due to wiring, the number of nodes in the structure also increases. Some structures also may not permit the use of cable surrounding the buildings for the traditional method of SHM. For making the structure wireless, WSNs (Wireless Sensor Networks) can be applied to the SHM (Structure health Monitoring) for making the structure secure and safe (Zou et al. 2015). The system of WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) is much lower and the cost of maintenance is vey less. The WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) boost the practical use of Structure Health Monitoring to a large scale.
According to Di Sante (2015) some of the comprehensive methodologies that are determined and located to extent the linear crack in plates, pipes and cracks that are developed on flight time analysis. These are done mainly by data analysis methods which includes wavelet transform. The applications where the sensor technology is used in detecting the health of concrete structures are described as follows:
Beams- The data that are experimented to locate a crack in the aluminum beam are based on consideration of wave propagation (Na and Baek 2017). Let the beam that is considered has a length of 650 mm, depth of 6mm, 32 mm width having an elasticity of 73.1 GPa. The density of the beam let be 2,790 kg/m3. Choosing the sensor that is fit for the structure is considered as a very important part of SHM (Structural Health Monitoring). Conventional strain gauge and piezoelectric sensor are attached with the beam at 300mm for comparing it with other structures that are healthy. The signals that are collected are based on the impact force at 0.5mm and 200 mm and 1.0 mm deep (Annamdas and Soh 2016). The linear cracks that are at 450 mm are mainly possessed using the wavelet transform. The second peak is detected by the piezoelectric data where the data of strain gauge is non-existent.
The cracks that are deeper than 1mm, both of the sensors give a particular second peak. The result that comes from the piezoelectric sensor is much more reliable and consistent than the strain gauge for locating the damage and can be used anywhere it is needed. Talakokula and Bhalla (2015) stated different boundaries of data are analyzed with three sets of data. This includes fixed ended, cantilever conditions and simply supported. The gauges of conventional strain and the piezoelectric sensor are used to capture the wave signal that has the timings of direct, boundary reflected waves and also reflects damage. These timings that are estimated by technique of signal processing can deduce the damage location in the structure (Padiyar and Balasubramaniam 2016). The results that are received from the experiment indicates the wavelet transform that come from the dynamic response data from sensor of piezoelectric that is used to locate the damage in beams.
Plates- According to Zheng (2015) the defects in plate structure, damage extent of the crack, orientation and the location are to be identified by the sensor technology. A foci method is proposed to detect such defects. To understand the concept, an ellipse is to be considered such as PZT1 and PZT2. The foci of two ellipses are considered and the sum of distance from the foci of the ellipse to the crack is constant and is made equal to the major diameter of the ellipse (Hu, Zhu and Wang 2015). To get the exact position of crack from infinite solution that is provided by an ellipse, signals from the sensor or actuator at different locations are to be used. This process allows to construct more ellipse and the intersection will at last give the location of crack that is estimated from the calculations. To get an unambiguous position of the crack, a minimum number of three cracks are needed to do the calculations (Seshadrinath, Singh and Panigrahi 2014). When the position of the crack is estimated by intersecting three ellipses, the next method is followed to determine the extent of the crack and the orientation of the crack.
The extent of the crack can be measured by using smaller tiny step shifts at both the ends. To determine orientation of the crack, the foci of two ellipses is placed collinear with the crack that is identified at two distinct positions (Talakokula and Bhalla 2015). The sensor location is considered as C0S and the actuator location is considered as C0A along a line C0. Taking the Snell’s Law and the Huygen’s Principle, the direction of that crack can be determined. This can be done by monitoring the cracks reflection peak’s energy in that area for all the lines at different angles (Yan et al. 2017). After the determination of the orientation of the crack, the sensors and actuators are shifted in positions that are parallel to right or left of the line C0 that was considered. The Lamb wave is then actuated and spectrum of signal from sensor is also plotted. The point when the energy peak vanishes from spectrum for the reflection from crack denotes the end point of the crack.
Pipes- According to Yuen and Mu (2015) the cracks that are present in the homogeneous pipes can be detected by this proposed methodology. The location, damage extent and the orientation of the crack that occurs in the homogenous pipes can be determined. The attenuation in strength of direct wave incidence of the sensor is observed to determine the crack of the pipe. To interrogate the presence of the crack, four actuation positions on the pipe segment is needed. The actuation position must be placed on two on each end of pipe segment. The circular sensor and actuator of the piezoelectric method can be used to detect a crack in the pipe which is experimentally proved. The proposed methodology of the piezoelectric actuator and sensor also works for aluminum pipes (Zheng 2015). If the pipes are buried under sand, the sensor and the actuators only helps to detect the cracks in the pipes. Experimentally it has been proved that this proposed methodology is capable of detecting cracks that are concealed even when the pipes are buried under the sand.
Different models are studied to repair the detection methods that are detected from the piezoelectric materials. The models help to repair the structure that includes mechanical models to repair the cracks or the beams that are delaminated or the cracks that are in the plate structures under different load conditions (Yuen and Mu 2015). The size and the placement of piezoelectric layer so that it can provide a design that has optimal design in respect to minimize or remove stress singularity at tip of the cracks and all the delimitations can also be investigated.
Beams- As stated by Wymore et al. (2015) to repair the delaminated beams that are subjected to static load that are concentrated can be done by piezoelectric patches. Let the delaminated beam that is subjected to static load be P. The delaminated beams can be repaired through piezoelectric patches (Annamdas, Bhalla and Soh 2017). The geometric and the material parameters of delaminated beam let as denoted by E to determine the Young’s modulus of host beam, H is the thickness, T be the width and t be the thickness of upper layer of the delaminated beam. Let the length of the beam be a. the analysis that is done by Young’s module determines the facture of the sliding mode that was induced at the tip of delaminated beam which leads to stress singularity (Zhang et al. 2015). The concept that is involved in this is to balance axial force that is induced in delaminated beam by applying the counteracting force through piezoelectric patch.
To repair the delaminated beam, two numbers of piezoelectric patches with same thickness and length are attached. Let the thickness and the length of the patch be ph and pl. To repair the notched beam under the static load and the dynamic load are done by Euler-Bernoulli beam theory (Yan et al. 2017). To repair the beam that is delaminated, the beam is subjected to dynamic loading which is a methodology of close loop feedback control repair by using piezoelectric patches. A local shear force on the area which is delaminated is induced by electrochemical characteristics of piezoelectric material (Basu et al. 2014). The FE method of sensor technology is used to verify effectiveness of the design that is proposed and also repairs the methodology for beams that are delaminated.
Plates- According to Wang, Zhang and Zhu (2015) for the delaminated plate repairement under static loading, piezoelectric patches are used by the methodology of analytical model and FE method. In this study of methodology, only a single rectangular delamination of the plate is considered with edge numbering in the plate. Padiyar and Balasubramaniam (2016) stated that the patches of the piezoelectric are bonded on the surface of delaminated area. A static load that is vertical is applied on the surface of the plate that is delaminated. When the load is applied on host plate vertically, then deflection will be created along the area that is delaminated. Elongation along the axial point and compression is done along the X and Y direction of the delaminated area can be induced due to bending of host structure (Duan, Wang and Quek 2010). For the induced compressive and tensile forces that are in delaminated plates, the crack joints initiate shear stress singularity at the lower and the upper layer of the plate which leads to mode of second fracture as stated according to the fracture mechanics. Bandara, Chan and Thambiratnam (2014) argued that due to the given stress concentration on delaminated edge, piezoelectric patches are used to give shear forces between the host delaminated plate and the piezoelectric patch. This can be done by applying voltages on the plates so that the tensile magnitudes and the compressive forces on the lower and upper layers of the delaminated plate. The shear stress of singularity can be erased by this process.
Xiang et al. (2013) analyzed that early detection of the damages and defects into the civil structures is a vital process to assist maintenance and management of the buildings. With damage detection methods, it becomes probable to fix structure during early stages of the damage after construction of buildings. The methods used to avoid of accidents such as physical in addition to psychological effects in the society. Seshadrinath, Singh and Panigrahi (2014) stated that frequency domain methods are based on analytical models while LAMB wave methods are based on propagation of long distances with higher modes to present of response waves. Most of the damage detection methods are based on utilization of data into frequency as well as time domain. Following are two of the damage detection methods which are summarized and suitable for this particular project work:
Bandara, Chan and Thambiratnam (2014) stated that current inspection techniques are leading the civil engineers for investigating of frequency response method for monitoring as well as global assessment of the structures. This particular method is based on vibration responses which permit to obtain time as well as frequency domain data and then estimation of the changes into structural as well as modal properties like modal damping, resonance frequencies and others. Zhang, Lie and Xiang (2013) argued that with use of frequency response method, its objective is to develop of reliable techniques for detecting, locating and quantifying of the damages. When there is any damage into the structure of the building, there is possibility of changes into dynamic properties such as mass and damping (Klepka et al. 2014). When a crack into the building is observed, then the mass remains unchanged and change into damping is disregarded. In that situation, a proper attention is provided to monitor changes into shiffness. This case is being addressed using this particular method.
Piezoelectric methods are based on SHM system where detailed explanation of mode shapes that is set throughout utilizes of scanning laser vibrometer (Gillich and Praisach 2014). The contrasts are set with velocity magnitude response towards specific range of frequency under 500HZ. The purpose of frequency response method is to perform structural vibration based on the health monitoring which reduces dimension of initial frequency response functions of data and then changes into new damage indices. (Foti, Gattulli and Potenza 2014). This particular propose method is such a tool for the structural assessment into real structure as it shows of steady results with investigational data for non-linear detection of the damages. It provides of frequency response functions based on method for the structural health monitoring.
Padiyar and Balasubramaniam (2016) demonstrated that cost effective and damage detection is vital for utilizing of composite materials for construction of building. LAMB wave methods are used for damage detection of building. This wave scans are performed on narrow laminated specimens in addition to sandwich beans for monitoring of transmitted waves with piezoelectric based sensing techniques (Tian and Yu 2014). This particular technique provides information related to damage presence as well as harshness of the tested methods. It determines to damage location due to local response environment. This method is appropriate for SHM applications as it is travelling longer distances and applied with piezoelectric actuators along with sensors which need of low power (Dao and Staszewski 2014). This method is implemented by using of separate actuators in addition to sensors for monitoring transmitted waves and reflected waves.
Agrahari and Kapuria (2016) simulated the propagation of the lamb waves into plates for using of fixed element code. The current project work utilizes of piezoelectric patches for exciting of anti-systematic lamb waves. The waves are chosen as it propagates longer distances with dispersion and higher modes to present clutter resulting response waves (Agarwal and Mitra 2014). The main way to define propagation of the lamb waves into the material is dispersion curve that plots the phase as well as group velocities opposed to excitation frequency. The curves are being derived as result of wave equation for lamb wave. It is described in terms of the Lame’s constants (Kijanka 2013). Equality is solved numerically for provided set of constant properties of composite materials.
The experimental set up of two of the methods is based on handling of the detectable changes with the natural frequencies. The structural changes into the buildings are administered with correlation. Daoand Staszewski (2013) analyzed that stronger the correlation is set with relative frequency lessening and areas are set below the criticality of the damages. The frequency response methods are related to detect of the changes with larger structures for handling of the power and weight (Neerukatti et al. 2016). Lamb wave methods are used of analytical procedures to detect the damages into the buildings. It represents of square shell elements with prediction of how changes can lead to reduction of the damages. Both the methods are providing of information that is sensitive to local consequences of the identified damages into civil engineering (Cha and Buyukozturk 2015). This particular method is used of analytical survey of the candidate methods for in-situ detection of the damages of the composite materials.
Into the laboratory, the researcher determines the frequency response of the buildings and then a frequency response plat is constructed visually for the purpose to convey of information. The experiment consists of transducer and sensing of others (Stepinski, Uhl and Staszewski 2013). The adjacent transducer is then actuated and sensed with remaining. When there is an increased into damage, then the process is also repeated. This particular experiment is conducted on panel before any damage is inflicted into form of hole drilled throughout the panel at location such that there is intersection of paths among pairs (Alavi et al. 2016). The damage progression information is being implemented into a form of 10 percent of increment into signal amplitude if actuator sensor path showed of reliable reduction into the power across the state of the damage of the composite materials.
The results from use of Lamb wave method are approved with output of simultaneous strain induced voltage that is set with Morlet wavelet decomposition for driving the frequency (Chopra, Nigam and Pandey 2015). The procedures are carried of beam cases with laminated plates along with bonded stiffness. The voltage time is traced for reasoning of transmitted energy with third specimen pattern. In LAMB wave method, the dispersion curve shows relationship among phase velocity as well as pulse velocity (Seshadrinath, Singh and Panigrahi 2014). At low frequency, few number of lamb modes are being excited such that response signal is noticeable. When the velocity is slow, there is more time required to separate send and receive signals which makes the changes more evident (Bandara, Chan and Thambiratnam 2014). This method provides information on location, extent of damage and its type and it is applied to the structure with piezoelectric devices. This particular method manages to predict the failures based on, limitations of fabricated piezoelectric strain gauges with set of various ranges (Zhang, Lie and Xiang 2013). The research is conducted and based on sampling rate with monitoring of customized software with buffered data series for high data acquisition rate. Coupling is based on functioning with proximity towards the sensors.
Increased of the driving voltage increased the magnitude of the lamb wave strain. Into the experiments, drive of the piezopatches at amplitude of 5-10 V is produced 10-25 mV of response due to the wave sensed by PZT patch. Increment of the amplitude increased signal to noise ratio to clearer signal, since PZT patch received of the static noise with a range of 1-5mV of range (Padiyar and Balasubramaniam 2016). Higher voltage is tended to raise drift into the signal, with resolution of abilities of data acquisition system. There is lower power of the SHM system. 5V is the optimal driving voltage which is chose for the experiment (Stepinski, Uhl and Staszewski 2013). Using the SHM approach, four steps are followed to resolve of the damages. The first is to identify of the damage occurred into the structure of the building. Then, the researcher identifies the location of damage, quantification of the damage’s level and evaluation of the performance of structural damages (Gillich and Praisach 2014). SHM approach is a cost effective manner and it is focused on damage detection using the modal properties. Therefore, detection of damages is most important into the civil engineering applications.
In this particular research study, localization of the damage in beam like structures is based on use of sensitivity analysis of measures (Chopra, Nigam and Pandey 2015). A review is conducted into modal updating methods which consists of sensitivity of the frequencies in addition to mode shapes is provided. Natural frequency sensitivity is being used for the purpose to conduct of damage localization. Most of the methods are based on frequency sensitivity based on damage variables require to proper analytical models. Frequency approach is used in this study for elimination of damages (Bandara, Chan and Thambiratnam 2014). Mode shapes are considered to identify the spatial changes, as it condenses of deformation database for the structure. In current research work, sensitivity of the mode shape is being considered. The construction of the analytical model is not required for localization processes. (Stepinski,Uhl and Staszewski 2013). The results show potential of methods for propagation of wave analysis into damage detection applications.
Padiyar and Balasubramaniam (2016) stated that the detection of damages into the pipes is determined for location, damage extent and the orientation of the crack. In order to identify the cracks into the pipe, attenuation of the strength is also determined for direct wave incidence of the sensor. Both piezoelectric actuator in addition to sensor are worked for the pipes and overcome with the damages into it. When the pipes are buried into the sand, then both sensors with actuator helps to detect of the cracks within the pipe. Seshadrinath, Singh and Panigrahi (2014) argued that the identified methods are used to detect of the cracks from the building components. Piezoelectric sensing techniques are used to reduce or take away stress singularity at tip of the cracks. Therefore, the cracks that are occurred into concrete structure are detected and it is monitored with sensor techniques (Stepinski, Uhl and Staszewski 2013). When the damage defects are being detected from the civil engineering applications, then it increases complexity of the wiring as well as increases cost of maintenance.
Conclusion
It is concluded that the methods used for detecting and evaluating the damage is based on changes into modal shapes and vibration frequency of the structure of buildings. Collapsing of the buildings is considered as incidents which caused damage into the construction work. The identified damage detection methods are used of analytical model of building structure to present undamaged preliminary state. The magnitude of the damages are measured based on changes of stiffness of structural elements. The application of damage detection methods are evaluated based on various simulated damage states of modeling the buildings. The researcher analyzed that SHM has key significant importance to work into civil engineering where there is possibility to manage reduction of cost of life cycle. There is change into time as well as manufacturing cost where structure of neatness for the components workings on the lessening of the weight in addition to the aspect ratios. SHM system consists of system design which is compared to cost set for developing, implementing, operating and production. The identified methods are used to provide effects on propagation of wave with change into measured impedance spectrum. The entire study is based on sensing techniques which includes of host structure for monitoring of the services. It is observed that structural health monitoring is an approach for monitoring the condition of structure.
The damage detection methods are using various analytical ways to detect the damages into the building based on frequency in addition to time domains. Using both frequency response and lamb wave methods, the damages are detected within the buildings. It is observed that lamb wave method is using analytical for in-situ detecting of the damages. The researcher has analyzed that frequency methods are mainly used of analytical models for detecting of the damages while lamb wave methods are used of broadcast of the long distances with superior modes for presenting the response waves. The identified methods are used to recognize the damages properly with use of difference data among damaged as well as undamaged bean in addition to plate model. Damage index is considered as function of frequency range and variation of the damage index values. It provides of best possible frequency variety of responses analysis. The results of the analysis proved that this particular method into identification of damage with quantifications. It is also concluded that the methods are justified of better evaluation to the method applications.
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