The present report is the project plan put forward to reflect on Engineering Application Ability pertaining to EWB project. The setting of the project is Mayukwayukwa camp that provides services to near about 8000 individuals. The project would focus on four primitive areas associated with health. The first project would be on refrigeration of vaccines without the use of electricity. The second project would be on alternative methods for equipment sterilisation. The third project would be on the application of dust masks for people working in Hammer Mill. The last and fourth project would be on the usage of local materials for menstruation projects of women. The projects outlined in the present report would look into health perspectives from the point of view that is socially, economically and culturally sensitive. Sustaining projects that have an association with the health of individuals of the wider community is of much significance speaking on engineering grounds. Initiatives can only be successful when they are sustainable and are not in a position to be abruptly ended. For redefining the broader scopes of the project, economic and social sustainability are kept side by side. Strategies are developed that ensure that the acceptance of the project proposal is at all levels within the community. It is up to the community to understand the capacity of the projects outlines to ensure their success. Financial, administrative, and technical guidance and assistance are required for this (Price 2016).
There was only a clinic in the Mayukwayukwa camp which serves a total of 8,000 people of the refugee camp. This clinic consist of four qualified staff, 19 of them were support staff and one clinician. The clinic use to monitor every people and their problems. There were 15 to 50 people came to the clinic for their health problems, which includes diarrhoea, malaria, pneumonia and other services such as birth of a child, post-natal care and the persons who are suffering from HIV.
This clinic mainly depends on solar energy and diesel generators used for the refrigeration of immunizations and the utilization of the computer. However, right now there is insufficient power to run different apparatus, which means that there is some medical apparatus in the lab that can’t be utilized. A case of the impacts of such control deficiencies can be found in the water cleansing systems utilized at the centre. An electric sterilizer is accessible at the centre, however can’t be keep running because of lacking force supplies. However, hardware at the healthcare clinic are cleaned utilizing a fire-controlled autoclave which is being heated on a heater that is being controlled by a fire from wood or charcoal. The clinic gets its water supply by running the pump. This pump can be run with the help of generator and it can be done only once every day. At different circumstances, water must be gathered from a tube-well situated outside the wellbeing centre. Gathering water utilizing the hand pump can take up to 20 minutes during the dry season and is a significant applying movement for the medical caretakers.
In this part there is a description of storing the vaccines in the health clinic of Mayukwayukwa refugee camp. A review has been conducted on different types of methods that are available in the camp for the utilization of solar energy used for refrigeration. There are various methods that can be used for the solar refrigeration such as desiccant refrigeration, absorption refrigeration and adsorption refrigeration (McCarney 2013)
As there is no source of electricity in the refugee camp, so the solar energy is used to run the refrigerator. These types of refrigerators are used to store the medicines and vaccines at their required temperature for preventing the spoilage. Solar refrigerators were introduced for reducing the use of kerosene or gas power that was previously used for refrigeration process. In Solar refrigerator, the energy is converted to DC current by the help of solar cells, known as photovoltaic panel (Del Pero et al. 2015). These cells are the semiconductors which allow the conversion of solar energy to direct current. The current which is generated is used to run the compressor of the refrigerator. This current is used to run a DC motor attached to inverter is used to convert the current for running the refrigerator.
Source: www.ijert.org
Solar refrigerators are commonly used by developing countries for helping the poor people and reducing the harmful effects caused by the CFCs released by the refrigerator. Here in this project it has been aimed to make the solar refrigerator effective, so that it can be used in rural areas for the storage of medicines and vaccines without using high expenses.
The refrigerator used from solar energy has the ability to run on low costs and a longer life than other cooling systems. The solar refrigerator was designed and evaluated by the government of Australia. A PV panel was made which consist of three modules connected in series for obtaining the required voltage.
Source: www.energetica-india.net
Source: www.energetica-india.net
The coefficient of performance is an index of performance of the refrigeration system. The COP is the amount of cooling that is produced per unit of work of the refrigerator.
The performance of the refrigerator depends on the efficiency of the solar panel, which is the ratio of the electrical power produced with the radiation. The energy consumed by the PV model depends upon two main components such as electrical and thermal. For the design and construction the materials selected must be cost effective, précised, capability to run and must be the best pathway. For exchanging the heat copper tubes were used and it was ensured that the prototype of the industries and requirements is meant.
Installation was done at the clinic of Mayukwayukwa refugee settlement. In addition to that other auxillary instruments were also used:
In the operation of the refrigerator the transformer oil present in the evacuated vacuum tube is heated up by the use of trapped solar energy. Due to difference in density the hot fluid gets flow up to the manifold and the cold fluid flows down to the evacuated tubes. The transformer oil that is heated flows to the heat exchanger through the copper tubes and the heat gets transferred to the generator which helps to run the refrigerator.
For running the transformer three fluids were tested which could be used as thermal fluid such as kerosene, palm oil and transformer oil. Among these it was decided that transformer oil is the best way to run the refrigerators as its thermal conductivity is high as compared to others. For rising the temperature of oil up to a level of 160? -190? a cabin temperature of 15? – 5? was obtained from 9am to 12pm, when the sun is at its peak so that it can absorb maximum energy and helps to raise the temperature up to 174.8?. In addition a backup heater is used with the system so that it can work in absence of the sunlight.
A solar thermal system is being designed and in that to obtain low temperatures from 8? to 0? the temperature is being raised to 120? to 150?. Although this design has various disadvantages, there are many advantages that are high and help the refrigerator to work throughout the year. This model of using evacuated vacuum tubes for running the refrigerator is the most effective as compared to others company.
Scope for the use of this type of refrigerator is to improve the design and development of the solar evacuated vacuum collector. To reduce the size of the tubes so that it can be used in the urban areas where there is a scarcity of space. This model could be used for the manufacture of cold rooms that will help the farmers to store vegetables. It can also be used as centralized air conditioning system for villages. The COP of the absorption system is comparatively low that can be increased in future.
The result of the project will be a working prototype of an adsorption refrigerator which had been designed for the rural application. The construction of the refrigerator is very simple and it takes very less time to construct. Therefore it can be said that the performance of solar refrigerators is sufficient for the storage of vaccine in very hot climate. This system has been provided with appropriate equipment selection and proper installation. This type of refrigerator is also aligned with the future policies for providing cooling facilities to the rural communities and healthcare facilities (Brites et al. 2016). All the solar refrigerators must be monitored in regular intervals and the standard operation procedures must be taught to the authorities of the clinic by the installation team. Unusual temperature performance data should be timely repair and to maintain the cooling of the refrigerator. Further the feedback of the performance of the solar refrigerator must be given to the manufacturers so that they could perform the diagnosis appropriately to improve the technology by identifying the root causes.
The medical devices which are used in surgery must be sterilized for using. The operation table in a clinic must be surrounded by a sterile zone. Visibility of the surgical devices makes it easy to maintain and simplify the sterile area. But there are some clinics or hospitals such as in Mayukwayukwa refugee settlement, where there is no electricity. In such cases battery packs, rechargeable battery packs, are used to produce electricity which can help in sterilization of the devices. Alkaline batteries are commonly used Sterilizing devices but as the voltage is low so many of the products are designed with lithium primary batteries.
Figure 1: This NiMH battery pack is specially designed to survive sterilization in an autoclave
Source: www.ecnmag.com
Details on rechargeable batteries for portable devices and all of them are common in the medical word each of the rechargeable battery and mainly made of Nickel cadmium which is having the lowest energy density but the rate capability is very powerful this is the reason that are used in cordless Power Tools both in construction and Orthopaedic surgeries. and Technology was introduced in 1991 and is the best method that is available today the Lithium ion cell corporate very effectively between -20 degree Celsius and +60 degree Celsius. the lithium ion battery required the greatest protection is inclusive thermal separated and exhaust mint to release the internal pressure. it also requires an external circuit that prevents over firing a voltage during charging and under-voltage during discharge. it also contains a thermal sensor which prevents It from thermal explosion Hi were the appropriate level of safety design into a lithium ion battery makes it the more attractive cell even when exposed to Extreme temperatures or chemical environment caused by the sterilization procedures (Brites et al. 2016).
The sterilization option:
The most common sterilization method that is available in hospital is the autoclave autoclaves are used in the dentist laboratories also. The autoclaves uses a high temperature to form pressure which is used to sterilize the equipment the batteries of autoclaves can be exposed to the extreme temperatures these tools and batteries can withstand the temperature up to 137 degree Celsius and up to the pressure of 30 PSI of steam. These also have a battery House enough runtime and power to complete the major Orthopaedic procedures.
In this part has been described about a new method for the state lization of medical instrument using solar energy this technology provide safe and reliable stabilization of surgical instruments without electricity (Sharma et al. 2017). The Solar autoclave uses of parabolic solar concentrator along with the small boiler for collecting the solar energy and to generate steam which is then transferred to an insulated pressure Vessel and an electronic sterilization indicator.
Source: www.who.int
To ensure that the 250 ml boiler and parabolic concentrator can generate the appropriate amount of steam for 5 liters insulated vessel an experiment was done. The test that were done showed that the system needs 2 concentrators to produce this amount of steam stabilization indicator measures the temperature and activate the LED when the appropriate pressure is reached (Neumann et al. 2013). The advantages of this type of solar autoclave include:
|
Development |
Solar oven 1 |
Solar oven 2 |
Solarclave |
|
Sub assemblies |
8 parts |
5 parts |
8 parts |
|
Supply chain complexity |
100% local materials |
90% local materials |
90% local materials; 100% local replaceable parts |
|
Assembly time |
1 day |
1 day |
3days |
|
Manufacture training |
7 days |
8 days |
10 days |
|
User training |
3 hours |
3 hours |
1 day |
|
Volume |
Low |
Low |
High |
|
Cost |
$300 |
$300 |
$400 |
Hammer mills have been installed for grinding maizes and turning into flour. The process involves fine dust particles that fill in the workspace at the time of operation. Inhalation of dust particles that is hazardous for the workers at the mills as they are prone to developing long-term exposure. The present project would look at the production of dust masks with the help of local materials for protection of the heath of the workers who work in the mills as well as visit the mills.
A dust mask would be the flexible pad that is to be held over the mouth and nose by a rubber band or elastic band for protection against dust that is encountered from the activities carried out in the mill. Usage of the dust mask would be highly recommended as protection can be gained at different levels. The masks would act as a more comfortable, lighter and cheaper alternative to respirators. The mask would be used while working in the dusty environment. Since the area under which the worker carries out their activities cannot be filtered by extraction equipment and fume, the use of mask would be the best option. The main features of the mask would be the prevention of skin irritation, the convenience of usage, prevention from bacteria, easy to wash, best in quality made from local materials. The mask would be used as a loose-fitting device creating a physical barrier between the wearer and the possible contaminants in the environment. The masks would be designed in such a manner that they would be able to bock dust particles very minute in size, splatter or splashes that might contain germs, large particle droplets and other contaminants. The dust mask would be a folding respiratory protection. It would be made resistant to clogging in time, as tested by Dolomite dust. The purpose would be to provide the individual with increased comfort while using it. The valve of the mask would be optional. The purpose of making the mask folding would be easiness in wearing it and storing it appropriately. The mask would be welded for improving and increasing the life of the mask. This would ensure that the mask is used for a desirable time frame, making it cost-effective (Schneider 2016).
The application of the dust mask implies that a set of regulations are followed for ensuring that the usage is at an optimal level. The mask is to be changed on a frequent basis, specifically when there is a discolouration noticed in the mask due to the accumulation of particles. Since the airflow is reduced with the use of dust mask, it is significant that the workers breathe in fresh air by taking breaks while wearing it. The valve would be helpful for the workers in exhalation that assists breathing. In case an individual develops a heath complication such as a headache or dizziness, he must immediately stop working and breathe in some fresh air. It is the responsibility of the person to ensure that the mask fits in snugly. In case the air is found to be leaking at the edges then a different mask is to be used. It is to be kept in mind that a particular mask is to be work by only one person for minimising health complications (Ramirez and O’Shaughnessy 2017).
Figure: Dust Mask (Quinlan et al. 2010)
The mask that is to be used would be made in such a manner that a metal nose wire would be present that is concealed with its body. The mask can, therefore, be fitted to the contour of the nasal bridge. Continuous and seamless elastic band would provide a comfortable and secure fit. The exhalation valve would help in reduction of building up of heat within the respirator. The elastic straps would be made in such a manner that it can attach in two manners; head is hanging or ear hanging. Head hanging would have two straps behind the head and the ear is hanging would have two elastic straps with the same length. The nose clip would be the strip across the bridge of the nose. The nose foam rubber would be the strip of foam sticking on the inside of the mask across the mask. This would ensure that a good sealing is done, preventing dust particles from coming in. The exhaust valves would release the hot and humid air into the air. The material to be used for the mask is double elastic. This form of elastic can be found locally and is cost-effective. The details of the mask are as follows-
Table 1- Details of double elastic mask (Quinlan et al. 2010)
Table 2- Details of round elastic band (Quinlan et al. 2010)
The mask would be cost effective from the economic perspective. The direct cost of purchasing the materials for making the masks would be low, as the materials would be locally available. The indirect costs would involve education of the workers regarding usage of the dust masks. This would include training materials and charges for consulting external agencies, and logistical costs such as distribution, storage and sourcing. In spite of the costs, the masks would be free of charge to the workers as found to be feasible in the community. For the economic sustainability analysis, a decision analytic model is to be used with the help of Microsoft Excel that provides a detailed economic evaluation of the mask. Health outcomes and costs are to be analysed for a time frame of one month (Ratcliffe 2017).
The social sustainability in the present context is related to the understanding that the dust mask can be used by all workers who come from different backgrounds with diverse educational backdrops. Dust masks such as the proposed one are easy to use and require less training and education as compared to complicated respiratory masks. The workers must consider using the masks whenever possible for reducing all chances of health complications from dust. Challenges might come up while using the masks in the initial phase; it can be expected that a positive change would be brought about within a short span of time (Salvendy 2012).
The last of the project is on the issue of using local materials for menstruation projects of women. Women have been using chitenges at the time of menstruation that is not cost-effective due to high costs. The present project would highlight the usage of low cost reusable menstruation products, specifically sanitary pads that are hygienic and cost effective at the same time. The aim of the design would be to develop a pad that is comfortable and soft for wearing. The price for the pads would also be reduced to a considerable extent.
The sanitary pad design proposed would cater to the menstrual product needs of the women who are in need of cost-effective solutions to their menstrual issues. While designing the pad, it is essential to adhere to the fundamental feature of the pad, which is the ability to wash and reuse. It is pivotal that the type of material and its thickness if considered relative to the liners or number of pads included in the package. On a general basis, if the thickness of the pads is increased, there would surely be a positive impact on the capacity of the pad to absorb the fluid. There would be successively a negative impact on the average drying time. The drying time plays an important role in here since it is exact time needed for a pad o become dry together with the frequency of a replacement of a soiled line. Since the number of pads included in a package has a direct relationship with the retail cost of the pads, a major consideration is the number of individuals using them on a daily basis and the purchasing power they have. This implies that with a faster drying time of the pads there is a scope of reducing the number of pads included in a package (Montgomery et al. 2012).
The sanitary pads to be used would be presented in a kit that would have more than one interchangeable liners and two landing pads that would be sufficient for absorbing the menstrual flow. Research indicates that it would be best to use the liner product + landing pad design. Since the liners would be worn above the landing pads, it would be possible to wear the base as long as possible keeping in mind that it needs to be worn clean. However, the liners are to be changed frequently. A comparison can be made with the envelope-style designs of sanitary pads. In such designs, the liners are slipped into a holding unit that is envelope styles. The envelope style has a major challenge to it. Such a design necessities both the liner and the holder to be change at the same time. This implied that the sanitary pad kit needs to have an equal number of liners and holders. The cost of producing the kits would successively be greater. For making the present pads affordable, it is desirable that such a technique is not used. The cloth used must be made from darker fabrics that are mostly preferred by women. The colour of the material would relate to culturally-imbued experiences. However, women might prefer light coloured fabric since they are easier to wash (Budhathoki et al. 2017).
Figure: Proposed sanitary pad for women (Leroy et al. 2016)
The procedure of using the sanitary pads is easy and convenient. The kits would provide women with the required protection for almost a year. For getting an optimal experience, it is necessary that the pads are used properly and taken care of in an effective manner. The first step to be performed involves washing the pads prior to use. The idea is to increase the pad’s absorbency to a great degree. After wearing the pads, the women need to simply soak, wash and dry as needed. The pads can be soaked in cold water for 5-10 minutes, and washing can be done with the help of detergent or soap in clean water. Drying can be done in direct sunlight or any area that is well ventilated. It is to be ensured that complete drying is achieved before the pad is reused. It is estimated that it would take about 2 hours time for a pad to dry out completely. One must not bleach the pads for cleaning. In addition, they are also not to be ironed since this negatively influences absorbency.
Menstrual hygiene management draws significant public attention as it is a subject of concern in developing as well as developed countries. With the advent of low-cost sanitary pad developing technology, government and non-government policies and schemes might come into focus. These policies are useful in promoting and procuring the products. Proper menstrual hygiene would not only refer to the use of sanitary pads made from locally available cloth. The definition of articulating a safe menstrual product includes confidence of women and information impartment. Initiatives are to be taken foe educating the women on the different aspects of using the pad. Along with giving attention to the advantages of the pads, the minute yet valuable disadvantages are also to be given equal attention. The literature points out the use of sanitary pads under unhygienic conditions leads to a host of infections and health complications mainly involving the reproductive tract and urinary tract. Using unhygienic materials for pads acts a breeding ground for pathogens, encouraging a vivacious cycle of infections that are highly recurrent in nature. Unless and until there is a change in the behavioural pattern of the women, it would not be possible to bring a change in healthy practices (Coker-Bolt et al. 2017).
A booklet it to be provided to the women along with the kits to ensure that are under constant use on the long run. This would look after the issue of the socially sustainable idea. The outcomes of using such menstrual products would be multi-dimensional. Firstly, the rate of absentees at the workplace and educational settings would be considerably lower. The alteration can be apparent within a month’s time frame. The productivity of the women workforce would increase successively. With the provision of low cost sanitary pads, women would be less financially exhausted, especially those who come from lower economic groups. The provision of pads would promote local business. Encouragement of community ownership of the significant problem of sanitary products is highly recommended (Kuhlmann Henry and Wall 2017).
Conclusion
The present paper outline provides a brief description of the projects that are aligned with the goals and objectives of bringing about major positive changes in the Mayukwayukwa camp. The first project deals with the use of a solar refrigerator for storage of vaccines. Solar energy is now being used widely for different purposes, especially in rural areas where reduction of gas or kerosene consumption is pivotal. Stated in brief, the devices would use convert solar, energy into DC current, commonly known as a photovoltaic panel. The second project is on alternative equipment sterilisation methods that are better than conventional techniques. The third project of dust mask involves personal protection of individuals working or visiting mills from dust. The mask is to be made from locally available materials. The last project is on sanitary pads to be made from readily available materials, preferably cloth. All the four projects have been outlined keeping in mind economic, social and cultural sustainable concerns. It is to be concluded that with the application of these projects under suitable conditions, a positive change would be witnessed within a short span of time. It might be crucial to raising doubts on the actual benefits gained from the change; however negotiating the outcomes can be a proper approach towards fulfilling the set objectives.
References
Brites, G.J.V.N., Costa, J.J. and Costa, V.A.F., 2016. Influence of the design parameters on the overall performance of a solar adsorption refrigerator. Renewable Energy, 86, pp.238-250.
Budhathoki, S.S., Bhattachan, M., Pokharel, P.K., Bhadra, M. and Van Teijlingen, E., 2017. Reusable sanitary towels: promoting menstrual hygiene in post-earthquake Nepal. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care, 43(2), pp.157-159.
Coker-Bolt, P., Jansson, A., Bigg, S., Hammond, E., Hudson, H., Hunkler, S., Kitch, J., Richardson, H., Tiedemann, E., O’Flynn, J. and Laurent, M.D., 2017. Menstrual Education and Personal Hygiene Supplies to Empower Young Women in Haiti. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, p.1539449217719866.
Del Pero, C., Butera, F.M., Buffoli, M., Piegari, L., Capolongo, L. and Fattore, M., 2015, June. Feasibility study of a Solar Photovoltaic Adaptable Refrigeration Kit for remote areas in developing countries. In Clean Electrical Power (ICCEP), 2015 International Conference on (pp. 701-708). IEEE.
Kuhlmann, A.S., Henry, K. and Wall, L.L., 2017. Menstrual Hygiene Management in Resource-Poor Countries. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 72(6), p.356.
Leroy, Y., Yannou, B., Murthy, L., Lallmahomed, A. and Yannou-Le Bris, G., 2016, May. Which hygienic products for which continent? Design for usage and sustainability. In DESIGN 2016 14th International Design Conference(pp. 311-320).
McCarney, S., Robertson, J., Arnaud, J., Lorenson, K. and Lloyd, J., 2013. Using solar-powered refrigeration for vaccine storage where other sources of reliable electricity are inadequate or costly. Vaccine, 31(51), pp.6050-6057.
Montgomery, P., Ryus, C.R., Dolan, C.S., Dopson, S. and Scott, L.M., 2012. Sanitary pad interventions for girls’ education in Ghana: a pilot study. PloS one, 7(10), p.e48274.
Neumann, O., Feronti, C., Neumann, A.D., Dong, A., Schell, K., Lu, B., Kim, E., Quinn, M., Thompson, S., Grady, N. and Nordlander, P., 2013. INAUGURAL ARTICLE by a Recently Elected Academy Member: Compact solar autoclave based on steam generation using broadband light-harvesting nanoparticles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(29), p.11677.
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Ramirez, J. and O’Shaughnessy, P., 2017. Filter penetration and breathing resistance evaluation of respirators and dust masks. Journal of occupational and environmental hygiene, 14(2), pp.148-157.
Ratcliffe, M., 2017. Nail dust and the use of personal protective equipment–face masks, a review. Podiatry Review, 74(1), pp.26-29.
Salvendy, G., 2012. Handbook of human factors and ergonomics. John Wiley & Sons.
Schneider, M.J., 2016. Introduction to public health. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Sharma, N. K., Sharma, I. K., Sharma, L., & Rajgopal, P. (2017). Design and Development of Solar Autoclave. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 10(21).
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