Discuss About The Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites?
Rising global population, dwindling natural resources and increasing greenhouse gas emissions are some of the issues that have resulted to more emphasis on use of environmental friendly and efficient materials and processes[1]. As a result for this, the need for sustainable development cannot be overemphasized and it has led to numerous inventions and advances in engineering field[2]. The main goal of these developments is to make use of renewable, sustainable and recyclable materials so as to protect the environment for the benefits of present and future generations. Green composites are some of the sustainable and environmentally friendly materials that have been discovered and developed over the recent years and have huge potential of improving environmental conservation. By definition, green composites are a type of biocomposites where natural fibers are used to reinforce a biodegradable (bio-based) polymer resin or matrix. In this context, biocomposite is a composite material comprising of a resin (matrix) and natural fiber reinforcement. Therefore green composites are materials comprising of at least two different green materials. Green is used to mean that the materials are environmental friendly and have high resource efficiency. The structure of green composites usually bears a resemblance to that of living materials from which they are made of. This is useful in improving the properties of the green composites, protecting them against mechanical damage and environmental degradation, and improving their performance.
There are various kinds of natural fibers used in making green composites. Some of the commonly used natural fibers include: jute, cotton, hemp, flax, sisal, bamboo, banana, ramie, pineapple, coir (coconut), oil palm, kenaf, saw dust and soft wood, among others[3]. Each of these natural fibers have unique physical and mechanical properties, including density, Young’s modulus, tensile strength, elongation or strain, rupture stress, fracture toughness, water absorption, etc., which make them suitable for different applications[4]. As a result of this, it is important for designers and engineers to determine the precise properties of green composites before establishing their appropriate applications[5]. This requires them to perform relevant tests on the materials so as to determine their properties[6]. These natural fibers also have ecological and techno-economic advantages over most of the synthetic fibers such as glass and carbon fiber[7]. Their advantages over conventional synthetic fibers have led to emergence of numerous applications in different industries[8]. As environmental issues continue to be of great concern across the world, development and application of green composites is expected to expand[9].
The physical, mechanical and chemical properties of green composites have made them rapidly accepted by aerospace, automotive and transportation, construction, energy, military, healthcare and packaging industries, among others. These materials are being produced and used all over the world. In 2015, the global market for natural fiber was more than US$3.5 billion. Currently, the biggest market for green composites is Asia Pacific followed by North America and Europe. Many governments are also promoting use of green composites as a strategy to reduce carbon emissions. Thus as global awareness about environmental concerns intensifies, production and use of green composites are also expected to continue increasing over the coming years[10]. Therefore any study conducted to gather information about green composites is worthwhile.
This report will discuss different aspects of green composites, including: classification of green composites, properties and advantages of green composites, manufacturing processes of green composites, applications of green composites and challenges and/or issues of green composites. This will be done by using experimental methodology where a green composite panel will be made using different manufacturing methods and its mechanical properties (including Young’s modulus, strain, rupture stress, etc.) determined. Once these properties are determined, it will be easier to establish the impact of manufacturing method on mechanical properties and quality of the green composite panel and its suitable applications.
Green composites are usually classified based on the type of reinforcement from which they are made. Brief descriptions of various classes of green composites are provided below
These are green composites that comprise of a matrix or resin and natural fibers (reinforcement). The fibers are embedded in a matrix to achieve the desired physical, mechanical and chemical properties for the intended application of the green composite[11].
These are a class of single layered fibrous composites comprising of long fiber reinforcement. Orientation of the long fibers can be in one direction, forming uni-directional green composites, or the long fibers can also be woven to form bi-directional green composites.
These are a class of single layered fibrous composites comprising of short fiber reinforcement. The orientation of the short fibers can either be random or preferred.
These are composites whose reinforcement is in form of particles. The particle reinforcement in the matrix can have a preferred or random orientation.
These are composites that are filled with a supplementary material in addition to the main fiber reinforcement. In filler composites, the percentage of main reinforcement is always greater than that of filler material. The type of filler materials that are commonly used for improving properties and performance of matrix materials are particle fillers.
These are composites comprising of fiber reinforcement that is in form of chips or flakes. The geometry of the flakes is usually two dimensional (2D) and they mainly have a sizeable thickness.
These are a class of multi layered fibrous composites comprising of fiber reinforcement in form of mat embedded within the matrix. Orientation of the fiber reinforcing mat can be random, unidirectional or woven (bi-directional).
These are a class of multi layered fibrous composites comprising of at least two types of fiber reinforcements that are embedded within the matrix. Orientation of reinforcing materials in hybrid composites can be random, unidirectional or woven (bi-directional). Hybrid composites are created for the purpose of manipulating characteristics of resulting composite based on the specific application requirement.
The mechanical, physical and chemical properties of green composites depend on various factors such as type of materials (matrix and reinforcement) that are used to make the green composite, proportion of these materials, compatibility between the matrix and fibre and the processing or manufacturing method that is used to create the green composites[12]. This makes it possible to manipulate these properties so as to achieve the most desirable properties for the intended application. For instance, properties of green composites made from modified soy flour resin and ramie fibers[13] will be different from those made from virgin cotton and garneted fiber yarn. For this reason, exact properties of green composites, such as density, tensile strength, elongation or strain, Young’s modulus, rupture stress, toughness and water absorption, can only be determined after the composites have been manufactured and subjected to relevant tests for analysis. This is because each natural fiber and matrix material has its own strengths and weaknesses in terms of properties[14]. The properties determined helps in establishing the most appropriate application of the green composites and their behavior when exposed to different conditions[15]. As stated before, the green composites can be modified to improve their mechanical properties, processability and machinability, thermal properties and moisture resistance thus making them suitable for use in industries such as aerospace and automotive[16].
Natural fibers have some drawbacks and limitations when used as reinforcement materials in green composites. Some of these drawbacks and limitations include: they are hydrophilic; cannot withstand temperatures above 200°C, hydrophilic fibers have very low compatibility with hydrophobic matrices; they are short; and some of their properties are affected by external factors such as method of harvesting and climate[17]. The natural fibers consist of polar groups such as hydroxyl. When they are combined with nom-polar groups, such as those of matrices that are hydrophilic in nature, the natural fibers end up absorbing water resulting to poor wettability of matrices and incompatibility[18]. This results to poor bonding, making failure of the green composite inevitable. Therefore natural fibers usually have to be modified before they can be used to make green composites.
There are two main categories of methods used to modify natural fibers. The main objective of these modifications is to eliminate surface contamination on the natural fibers and improve contact or compatibility between them and matrices. The modification methods are categorized into physical modification and chemical modification. Physical modification involves changing the surface and structural properties of natural fibers. Examples of physical modification methods are: surface fibrillation, corona, plasma and barrier techniques, among others. Chemical modification usually entails developing a compatible hydrophobic coating on the filler’s surface before the natural fiber is mixed with the matrix. In most cases, coupling agents are used to enhance transfer of stress between the matrix and natural fiber. These coupling agents perform two functions: to react with hydroxyl groups present in natural fibers’ cellulose and react with the matrix’s functional groups. Examples of coupling agents commonly used are reactive chemistries (also called functional modifiers) and surface-active agents.
There are two main categories of matrix materials: thermoplastics and thermosets. The chemical crosslinking of thermosets makes it impossible to melt them once they are cured. However, mechanical properties of thermoplastics are generally good. The transition temperature of most thermoplastics is usually low resulting to low stiffness and high brittleness. The thermoplastics do not have chemical crosslinking making them easy to re-melt, reshape and manufacture. Examples of thermoset polymers that are commonly used include polyester, vinylester and epoxies while commonly used thermoplastics include polypropylene, polystyrene and polyethylene.
The popularity of green composites is rapidly increasing across various sectors mainly because of the exceptional properties and potential benefits of these materials[19]. Some of the advantages of green composites are as follows:
Wide-ranging properties and applications: there are various kinds of natural fibers and matrix materials, each with unique properties. Natural fibers are acquired from varied natural sources. The properties of these materials are influenced by factors like climate, plant location, crop variety, soil quality, seed density, fertilization, harvest timing and location of fiber on the plant, among others[20]. Matrix materials also have different properties. When these materials are combined, they create green composites with wide-ranging mechanical, physical and chemical properties that are suitable for a variety of applications such as in construction, automotive, aerospace, military, healthcare, electronics and energy sectors.
Non-toxicity: natural fibers used in making green composites are typically non-toxic[21], which reduces their environmental impacts throughout their lifecycle. Several studies have shown that natural fibers have far less heavy metals, carcinogenic substances and human toxins than synthetic fibers such as glass fiber. Therefore green composites have near zero toxicity hence harmless to humans and ecosystems.
Low cost: natural fibers’ cost is generally lower than that of synthetic fibers[22]. However, most biopolymers and matrix materials cost more than synthetic fibers. One of the techniques that manufacturers are using to lower the overall production cost of green composites is increasing the ratio of natural fibers to matrix materials. It is also worth noting that processing and treatment techniques needed to improve properties of green composites add extra production cost. Thus one way that manufacturers of these products are applying to lower production costs is by developing more efficient production, processing and treatment technologies and processes.
Renewability: green composites comprise of natural materials (matrix materials and reinforcement) that are mainly obtained from plants, which are renewable and sustainable resources. These plants are planted annually and therefore availability of raw materials for green composites is unlimited.
Low energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions: environmental impacts of materials are very essential nowadays mainly because of the global change concern. Materials with less embodied energy and carbon dioxide emissions are always the best choice for any application. Generally, treatment and processing of natural fibers and production of green composites consume less energy and generate a smaller amount of carbon emissions than synthetic composites. This makes green composites environmental friendly alternatives to synthetic composites.
Biodegradability: biodegradable materials are those that degrade completely by being acted upon by living organisms. All natural fibers are biodegradable meaning that they degrade and turn into useful organic matter or compost that can be used for agricultural activities. Some matrix materials are biodegradable while other are non-biodegradable. If a green composite has a biodegradable matrix, it can be disposed of through composting hence helping in minimizing waste disposal problems. But if the green composite is made of non-biodegradable matrix, it can only be disposed of through landfilling or incineration. Therefore in countries where manufacturers are held responsible for the products they make throughout their lifecycle, green composites with biodegradable matrix are largely used as a strategy for mitigating environmental impacts related to waste disposal.
Abundance: natural fibers, which are a major component of green composites, are natural resources whose available is unlimited. These resources can be found anywhere making them applicable worldwide. Infinite availability also reduces the cost of natural fibers and hence green composites.
Lightweight: the density of natural fibers is relatively low compared with that of synthetic fibers[23]. This makes green composites more suitable for use in automotive, transportation, sports, electronics and aerospace industries that require lightweight components for greater performance and efficiency.
Abrasiveness: green composites are less abrasive than synthetic composites[24]. This reduces wear and tear of tools and equipment used in production and repair of products made from green composites[25]. It also makes them easy to process.
Recyclability: green composites can also be recycled at the end of their lifespan and be put into other uses. Recycling and reusability of these composites helps in reducing environmental impacts in addition to other economic and social benefits.
Green composites can be manufactured using a variety of techniques. These techniques have varied requirements, advantages, limitations and drawbacks. Some of the manufacturing methods of green composites include:
In this technique, raw materials (i.e. fiber reinforcements and matrices/resins) are combined in an open mould and remain exposed to air when they are curing or hardening[26]. There are three main processes of open moulding: spray-up, filament winding and hand lay-up.
Hand lay-up: this is the simplest, least expensive and commonest type of open moulding methods. In this method, a spray gun is used to apply a gel coat on the mould followed by placing fiber reinforcements into the mould by hand. A paint roller, spray or brush is then used to apply laminating resins or matrix material on the fiber reinforcements. Successive layers of fiber reinforcements are then added by hand to create the desired laminate thickness.
Spray-up: this process is also known as chopping. The process starts by using a spray gun to apply a gel coat on the mould. A chopper gun is them used to inject fiber reinforcements on the mould that are then laminated by matrix using another chopper gun. This is followed by adding extra coatings of chop laminate until attaining the desired thickness. The process is suitable for making transportation components, tanks, boats, shower units and bathtubs of different sizes and shapes.
Filament winding: this is an automated process of open moulding. The mould used in this process is rotating mandrel. The process starts by using a resin bath to feed continuous constituent roving that is then coiled on the mandrel. There is a trolley on which the roving feed runs. The filament is then placed in preset geometric configuration so as to obtain maximum strength in the desired orientation. After applying sufficient layers, curing of the laminate on the rotating mandrel is done followed by stripping the moulded part from the mandrel.
In this technique, raw materials (i.e. fiber reinforcements and matrices/resins) are combined inside a vacuum bag or two-sided mould. Closed moulding processes are mostly automated and are performed by special equipment hence suitable for large scale production of green composites. Some of the closed moulding techniques are discussed below.
Vacuum bag moulding: in this process, a release film (matrix) is placed over the natural fiber laminate then on top of it is placed a bleeder layer of a material that is able to absorb excess matrix from the laminate. Another bleeder layer of the same material is placed on top of the previous layer then a vacuum bag is secured on top of the whole assembly. Thereafter pressure is extracted from the vacuum bag allowing atmospheric pressure to be exerted on the bag thus eliminating excess resin and entrapped air and compacting the laminate. This also increases the percentage of natural fiber and enhances adhesion between the fiber and matrix.
Vacuum infusion processing: this process starts by placing dry fiber reinforcement in the mold, including laminate, then placing a pricked release film on top of the dry reinforcement. A flow media comprising of a fold layer or coarse mesh is positioned then a pricked pipe is put in place for resin distribution on the laminate. This is followed by placing and sealing the vacuum bag around the perimeter of the mould. A tube connection between the resin vessel and vacuum bag is then used to apply a vacuum to combine the laminate and pull the resin into the mould.
Resin transfer moulding: the process starts by placing dry reinforcement in a closed mould followed by pumping the resin at high pressure through the mould. The process is time consuming and labour intensive but has less emissions and can produce complex components.
Compression moulding: in this process, a mould is fixed in a mechanical or hydraulic moulding press then it is heated to a predetermined temperature[27]. Fiber reinforcement and resin with a balanced charge are put in the open mould followed by closing of the mould’s two halves then applying pressure. The moulding material is then allowed to cure for a length of time determined by shape, size and thickness of the composite. After curing, the mould is opened followed by removing the finished component. This method is suitable for making automobile, electrical, structural, housing and furniture components.
Continuous lamination: here, resin and fiber reinforcement are combined on a plastic film drawn through the lamination process followed by applying a second film over the resin and reinforcement to facilitate proper mixing and air exclusion. The composite is then transferred to an oven for curing. If panels are the ones being produced, they can be automatically cut and trimmed to the desired dimensions. Imprinted carrier films can also be used to create special effects on the components’ surface.
Pultrusion: This technique entails filling fiber reinforcement in a resin basin then using a strong tractor apparatus to pull it via a steel die. The reinforcement gets consolidated with the steel die which also adjusts the composite shape and ratio of fiber to resin. The resin is then cured rapidly by heating the steel die.
Centrifugal casting: in this method, resin and fiber reinforcements are placed in a rotating mould and held there by centrifugal force until the component is adequately cured. The external surface of the component gets cured against the mould’s internal surface.
Reinforced reaction injection moulding: in this method, fiber reinforcements are used to improve resin’s properties. The process starts by metering at least two reactive resins which are then mixed under extreme pressure to create a thermosetting polymer. The polymer is injected into a coated and cured mould from the two sides under low pressure then reinforcement is added for polymerization to take place.
This process uses an autoclave, a pressure vessel that regulates vacuum and pressure temperature conditions. The green composite of fiber reinforcement and resin is placed on the mould followed by placing a vacuum bay on top of it. Air is then emptied from the vacuum forcing the bag to collapse on the composite. The assembly is then moved into the autoclave for the resin to cure under accurately controlled conditions.
This is the latest method of manufacturing green composites. It is a high-tech technique that is used for producing complex and high quality components. The method entails use of digital fabrication to manufacture components quickly and precisely[28]. Various rapid prototyping techniques used include: selective laser melting/sintering, laminated object manufacturing, ultrasonic consolidation, 3D printing, laser engineered net shaping and fused deposition modelling.
Other methods manufacturing methods include: extrusion, thermoforming, melt mixing and solution casting.
Different areas where green composites are applied include:
Automotive market has become very competitive worldwide. Players in the industry are using green composites because of their lightweight, good mechanical properties, great sound absorption, good formability and low embodied and carbon dioxide emissions. Green composites are being used for making different automobile components such as dashboards, headliners, trunk liners, door panels, rims, package trays and body panels, among others[29]. Automotive in this context includes trucks, vans, buses, passenger cars, recreational vehicles and sport utility vehicles[30]. Besides automobiles, green composites are also used in ships and trains.
Lightweight, strength, low cost and environmental friendliness are some of the major attributes of aircraft components. Green composites exhibit these attributes and that is why they have found wide-ranging applications in aerospace industry. They are used for making different aircraft components, which help in improving energy efficiency and reducing costs and carbon emissions[31].
Most sporting equipment need to be strong, lightweight, resistant to vibration and safe. Green composites provide these very important properties and that is why they are widely used for making sporting equipment nowadays. Examples of sporting equipment made from green composites include: snow boards, tennis rackets, golf clubs, bicycle frames, boat hulls and archery bows, among others.[32].
Green composites are used to make a wide range of electronic and electrical equipment and appliances. These include circuit boards, electrical panels, mobile panels, mobile phones, etc.
Properties of green composites, including bioactivity, biodegradability and biocompatibility have made them better than synthetic composites in biomedical applications. Some of the applications of green composites in healthcare industry include: tissue engineering, implants, medical equipment and devices, etc.
Green composites have a wide range of applications in construction industry because of their high strength, corrosion resistance, low maintenance needs and light weight properties. They can be used for making structural components of buildings such as beams, columns and roofs. They are also used for decorative purposes (interior decorations), flooring, walls, partition purposes, insulation purposes, ceilings, doors, windows, panel rails, furniture, bathtubs, countertops, fireplace surrounds, shower receptors, kitchen products, fencing, decking, plumbing systems, etc. These uses reduce carbon emissions and costs of the buildings besides improving structural soundness, thermal comfort and aesthetic value of the building.
Green composites are used for making packaging and other short lifespan items such as plastic cutlery and toys.
Green composites have also found applications in energy sector especially renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy. Because of low weight, low cost, high strength, high corrosion resistance and high toughness of green composites, these biocomposites are being used to make structural components of wind turbines and solar panels.
Green composites have numerous advantages over synthetic composites. However, there are some concerns that are hindering use of green composites. If these composites have to become reliable in use as structural components then the issues need to be resolved. The key concerns are:
Properties disproportion: green composites are made of two or more different materials, usually a matrix or resin and natural fiber reinforcing material(s). The natural fiber reinforcing materials are usually obtained from different sources and therefore they exhibit significant variations in their characteristics and properties[33]. These variations can cause compatibility problems with matrix material thus affecting the properties of resulting green composites created. As a result of this, there is need to perform statistical analysis[34] on each green composite created so as to know their exact properties before use[35]. In general, variability in properties of natural fibers makes it difficult to rely on green composites in structural uses where component failure is intolerable.
End-life disposal: all natural fibers are biodegradable hence their end-life disposal is easy. Most matrix materials are bio-based but not all of them are biodegradable. If green composites are made of non-biodegradable polymer matrix, they cannot be disposed of through composting hence causing waste disposal problems. The non-biodegradable materials can only be disposed via landfilling or incineration, which have negative impacts on the environment.
Water absorption: cellulose is the main substance contained in most natural fibers[36]. This substance is highly hydrophilic and causes wettability and compatibility problems when natural fiber is combined with matrix materials that are hydrophobic. Finished green composites made of natural fibers experience swelling that causes surface roughening, delamination and loss of material strength and other mechanical properties. Therefore natural fibers have to be treated[37] through chemical modifications[38] or physical modifications so as to improve their properties by reducing water absorption capability.
Poor durability: durability of green composites is generally limited because their largest percentage of materials are biodegradable. Growth of bacteria and fungi in natural fibers degrades green composites and this worsens when these composites are exposed to environmental conditions such as moisture and weathering. Some of the degradations include resin cracking, colour fading, black spots, fibrillation and bulging. Thus mechanical properties and durability of green composites reduces significantly as a result of exposure to the environment[39]. The composites must be treated appropriately so as to mitigate rapid deterioration.
Degradation at higher temperatures: natural fibers start degrading when exposed to temperatures above 200 °C. This significantly limits the range of processing methods and applications of green composites.
This research will be completed using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The chosen methodology to complete this research is experimental method, which is a scientific method that is appropriate for testing and observing scientific hypothesis. In the context of this research, making a green composite and determining its mechanical properties is a scientific process, which makes experimental method suitable for this research. Experimental method allows the researcher to control the variables of the tests being carried out. In this case, there are different types of green composites hence the researcher will be able to determine the type of green composites by selecting their materials (i.e. type of natural fiber and matrix/resins). This methodology also allows the researcher to make the same green composite panel using different manufacturing methods. As a result, the researcher can establish the relationship between the manufacturing method and mechanical properties and quality of green composite panel produced. Once the manufacturing method is identified, its standardized measures and procedures will be followed to make the green composite panel. The panel will then be subjected to relevant tests so as to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. The data will be systematically analyzed so as to establish the actual mechanical properties of the green composite panel and match them with their most suitable applications. The following is the general procedure of the experimental methodology that will be used in this research: identifying and defining the research problem; reviewing important literature; identifying mechanical properties to be determined; selecting manufacturing method to be used; constructing appropriate experimental design; carrying out the experiment; collecting raw data; analyzing collected data qualitatively and quantitatively; and presenting finding and conclusions.
Conclusion
Increased awareness about environmental issues such as global climate change has significantly contributed to rapid development and use of green composites. This report was about discussing different aspects of green composites, including: classification, mechanical properties, advantages, manufacturing processes, applications and challenges and/or issues of green composites. The report has also discussed the methodology (experimental methodology) that will be used to complete the research. The data collected from this methodology will be systematically analyzed so as to determine various mechanical properties of the green composite panel and establish its most suitable application.
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