Governance In Globalisation World And Corporate Governance

Contemporary international context of the issue

Describe about the Governance in Globalisation World for Process of Political System.

The long process of globalisation has been strictly associated with the process of an international political system. It has been observed that the first explanation interprets globalisation as “an expansion of Europe” and the other most powerful states.  According to the opinion of Claessens and Fan (2011), the political unification of the world is the product of the exportation of the rules and regulations of the European states system to the whole planet. The wide-ranging presentation of the process of expansion of the European International Society has been transformed to the Asian country. The notion of globalisation is completely different and independent for the different conditions.

Considering the opinion of Genberg (2016), the corporate governance can be a high agenda issue in the different leading countries. Thus, it needs improvement and transparency for both the financial and the non-financial information. The corporate governance is a set of legal implications that provide guiding principle to the company in a controlled and directed approach. The corporate governance is required to fulfil the goals and objectives in a way that append to the value of the enterprise. The financial investors considered as a significant fraction of the equity in the European and Asian companies. The investors often described as fleeting and myopic owners with no incentives for involving into the ascendancy. Such financial institutes potentially assess the monitoring and fining of managerial discretion. However, Claessens and Fan (2011) argued that the institutional contribution in corporate governance is bound to be reflexive either due to uneven or transitory ownership. The involvement of the financial investors in corporate governance has an undeviating tolerance on the agency costs resulted from the severance of tenure and control.

The study will show how the institutional investors are influentially handling the formulation of the corporate governance of the companies. The current study attempts to evaluate the contemporary governance practices and the associated issues. The issues like “Do you think there is a role to be played by institutional investors in corporate governance? Discuss concerning two corporate governance systems i.e. Anglo, Continental Europe and Asia” has been chosen to conduct the study. In the context of the current scenario, the two governance system such as Continental Europe and Asia has been considered to evaluate the contemporary corporate governance practices.

Institutional investors contribute as active participation in formulating the business governance of the companies. Many influential factors decide the extent of vigorous contribution by the financial investors. Well oriented corporate governance is a function of substantial shareholding and offers an effective legal fortification (www.adb.org, 2016). There is a shared association between the collective management of companies and the institutional investors. The world bank projected a rigid structure for corporate governance where the investors have the incentives for participating in various processes (europa.eu, 2016). The procedures include taking part in ethical decision making aspects, transparency, appraisal and evaluation of the companies. A subsequent survey showed that institutional investors paid and participated at an average of 20-27% in the companies of Asian countries and 18-22% in Europe. Majorly, the institutional shareholders do not play a proactive function in selling the shares of the company. Besides, such participation may lead to a drop in the stock prices, which affect the marketplace. Considering the opinion of Bianchi (2014), the dissatisfaction of the investors with the board can allow the investors to either exit or voice the issues and restrain the dissatisfaction. The shareholders also have the power to sell the part due to dissatisfaction. Although, selling the shareholding is not viable for most of the investors due to the policy of holding an actual portfolio.

Corporate Governance knowledge, practice and theories

The investor’s possibility to exert the important control on the companies has an obvious implication for corporate governance (corporategovernanceasia.info, 2012). The implications are concerning maintaining the standards of the corporate governance and issues apprehensive with enforcement. The Combined Code (2006) principles stated some aspects concerning the role of investors in corporate governance. These are stated as follows:-

Discourse with companies

The institutional investors could have a particular dialogue session with the management of the businesses to build a clarification in the organisational objectives.

Assessment of governance revelation

While analysing the companies’ governance arrangements, especially the measures of board structure and symphony, the investors need to give importance to all the aspects. This process is done to draw the attention towards all the factors that might create a problem in future.

The voting power of the investors

The institutional shareholders have an important responsibility of making a judicious use of the ballot rights.

The extent to which investors hold power in corporate governance depends on upon the number of shares the investors possess. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) started a corporate governance program in Asia and Europe to build a role framework for the institutional investors (www.oecd.org, 2011). The program made on IFC’s work in the field of corporate governance in Caucasus, Central Asia, Russian Federation, Southern Europe and Ukraine. Within Europe’s and Asia’s private sector, there is a broad range of legal forms that exists in organisations. Each of the industries faces different problems on such regulations. Thus, specific codes are assigned to each of the industries to adopt the best practices of the corporate governance (Filatotchev, 2007). In Europe and Asia, there is a significant difference between investor ownership pattern and engagement practices. The difference exists in the field of share concentration, share ownership patterns, control-augment mechanisms and the extent of investor’s activities. The concentrated ownership has great and positive implications. According to Genberg (2016), the control of shareholders is keener to implement a long-term attitude compared to other investors. The shareholders can insulate the company from the adverse effects of fluctuations in share market and the monetary cycles. The reports show that in some of the Asian companies, the investors do not use the rights properly. The activism of the investors in Asia is comparatively small, which reflect that there is a lack of improvement in corporate governance.

As per the opinion of Gui (2015), the institutional investors always demand superior transparency and accountability. The investors if play a proactive role, then can become a significant part of the rating of corporate governance. This activity could raise the standards of such management. According to the drafts paper of World Bank, the investors consciously place the welfare of the beneficiaries against the interests of managers and CEO. The investors most of the time act in a way that best serves the interests of the company’s shareholders. The financial institutions can help a company in formulating good corporate governance in the following ways:-

Enhance the operational performance, competence and profitability

Establish a long-term value that can grow in a sustainable way.

Develop and implement the various corporate strategies and can provide a meaningful direction.

Ascertain clear roles and responsibilities along with the accountabilities.

Forecast and handle the risks in venturing into a new deal.

The investors can exert a pull on an enormous amount of capital and afford investments.

Assist in developing business partners.

Construct and help to maintain the reputation and trust.

The supremacy of the institutional investors, which are cited above cannot be avoided, and the influence that the investors yield is enormous. These investors can somehow get diversification in the views by the effect of other investment institutions. The insurance companies and other pension funds constitute the large institutional investors that belong to two or more envoy bodies. These bodies act as a professional group who voice on the views about the issues. According to the opinion of Jhunjhunwala (2016), it is feasible for the institutional investors to take a combined action against the face of poor corporate performance. Many pieces of evidence show that the involvement of the financial institutes has increased over the last few decades. The involvement rises in respond to the stress from many companies for institutions to play a more vigorous role. The financial institutes show reluctant towards the organisations only when there is a real verification of collapse. The corporate governance is, however, significantly subjective by the legal systems of the important countries. Thus, the institutional investors dynamically engage in formulating the corporate governance is fully based on the legal implications of the country in which the company exists.

A master in Corporate Governance intends to provide knowledge about planning, implementation and follow-up of corporate practices and the strategies. This process helps the business unit to learn the ethical practices and the other operational techniques to achieve the higher standards of corporate behaviour. In the opinion of Bianchi (2014), there are two factors which can be helpful to drive the trends that are regulation and market forces. The European law and the corporate governance of the country are going forward above the prospect. The corporate governance models in Europe contain an explicit knowledge regarding the practices of corporate governance in Europe. Adding to this, the explicit knowledge of the European government offers a great potential to preserve the value of creation and the other reliability constraints. Considering the view of Attig et al. (2009), the knowledge of the corporate governance has helped to develop the European Convergence model to formulate a valuable integration. Thus, the multinational corporations (MNCs) of European country have major forces in the global financial system (www.europa.eu, 2016).

It has been observed that the extraordinary growth of the institutional investors in Europe has mandated the pension commitments which would be fully funded by the segregated pools of assets. According to the opinion of Genberg (2016), in December 2012, the European Commission introduced an Action Plan that unites both the corporate law and the corporate governance. Adding to this, the European Court of Justice’s case law has a far impact on the free movement of the different corporations in the European Union. In the Asian country, there are a large number of institutional investors currently operating in the different countries (www.corporategovernanceasia.info, 2016). It has been speculated that the corporate governance has also facilitated to increase the actions in the context of the business operation. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in Asian countries is determining the corporate governance practices. The OECD principles followed in the Asian countries bounded to decide the operational activity in terms of business development and growth. According to the view of Cheung and Chan (2014), in Asian countries, the corporate governance of the majority of the organisation is directly governed by the clause 49 and the listing agreements. For an example, the SEBI and the Ministry of Company Affairs are governed the corporate governance of most of the Indian organisations (www.adb.org, 2016).  The Companies Act is the other regulation of practices followed by the Asian organisation to protect the shareholder value.

The corporate governance frameworks are elaborated from the legal, regulatory and institutional environments of a large economic context. It has been identified that the European Corporate Governance models have a big separation between the ownership and the organisation control.  For an example, Khan (2006) mentioned that the set of legal sets and the set of corporate finance is completely different from the set of rules and regulations. In the European market, the corporate governance of different organisation has incorporated a common set of policies and the procedures. According to the opinion of Li et al. (2006), The European Commission has modernised the company law and enhance the corporate governance in the European Union Plan. Furthermore, the substantial direct investment in foreign countries and the deeper integration of the EU has preserved a passive financial portfolio. The single market compels European management is located in the different countries to embrace the market and all the multiple strategic options. As per the view of Mallin (2008), the recent theory in corporate governance states that the corporation has to internalise the market in the case of transactional market failure. It has been found that this technique would be helpful to retain the monopolistic advantages of the business in across the international borders. In this current context, Filatotchev et al. (2007) cited that the regional concentar4tion of sales starts from MNCs both in the Asian and European countries. As per the microeconomic theory, the firm is a boundary with internationalised exchanges. The aims of the microeconomic theory are to penetrate the business into a larger business environment. This helps lead the market corporations and the other interactional operations. According to the opinion of Alattom et al. (2013), the advantages of the microeconomic theory is that it helps corporate governance of Europe and Asia to establish the strongest advocates of the standardised market strategies. Depending on the strategy of the corporate governance, it can be inferred that the corporations usually achieves the benefits from the different social, economical and the other regulatory business environments.

Adding to this, the Foreign Institutional Investors have the right to vote while taking the organisational decisions. According to the view of Attig et al. (2009), the institutional investors have the similar equitable treatment like the shareholder to take part in the organisational decisions making an approach. The Board of Directors and the Audit Committee has conducted to take the financial decisions in the Asian country. In the addition, it has been observed that the Institutional Investors of the both continents are currently involved in the proactive role to maintain the value of the corporate governance. Considering the opinion of Bianchi (2014), the fiasco has been avoided with an effective institutional investor activism for upholding the values of the corporate governance. As per the report of World Banks Draft paper, the institutional investors have to consciously put the interests of the recipient before the interests of the Assistant Managers and the Chief Executive Officers (CEO), etc.  Moreover, the personnel have to act in a proper way which would be best serves the interests of the organisational shareholders.

The companies of European and Asian countries require a panel of directors in formulating the corporate governance along with the institutional investors. The institutional investors manage a huge part of the wealth that range from a capital stock, which is equal to 81% of GDP in Germany to 191% in the US and UK (John et al. 2016). From the reports, it is visible that there is a European Investment Bank (EIB), which is jointly working with the European government. This bank provides loans to the European companies and assists in the various growth and developmental activities. The main aim of this bank is to increase the employment opportunities which results in the growth of the country. This bank also wants to incorporate the companies of other nations to promote the EU policies. Similarly, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) also provides technical support to the companies of developing member countries. The EIB and ADB provide 90% of loans to the companies within the territories. The banks borrow money on the capital marketplace and lend to the countries on some rigid and favourable terms. These requirements are based on the stated objectives of the banks or other financial institutes.

From the survey of Khan (2006), there is a change in the orientation of investor’s values in formulating the corporate governance in some European car companies. The reduced value of such investors resulted in the fallen prices of shares of the companies. The EIB lends to the companies of all sizes. The role of the bank is very constructive in developing various aspects of the companies. The aspects include providing advice and technical assistance to the clients for maximisation of the values of money. Both the banks take part in decision making processes along with the board of directors of the managements. According to LI (2006), these banks keep a close eye in the performances of the client companies by employing a special audit committee. The financial institutions demand promotional aspects from the companies. For public or government organisations, the financial institutes of Europe and Asia provide easy loans. The banks do not show much involvement in corporate governance in the case of well- developed business plan. The public organisations provide sufficient information to the bank regarding the day to day operations.

Considering the example of China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC) collectively with other significant agencies and ministries have attained a primary body of work. The enterprise has also taken it through the process of the extensive conference and inter-agency drafting. The OECD in the China regions has managed to consider the above aspect to be an important achievement. According to Brennan (2010), the tangible sign of China’s obligation to the excellence and the testimony towards its readiness has been improved with the modernization of the regions capital markets and the corporate governance practices. Considering the scenario of the financial institutes, it could be inferred that the financial institutes prefer contributing to the start-up brands to increase the market presently. However, the financial institutes are highly devoted towards the sound-full set of the organisation. The institutions are taking the details of the internal system and the functional structure (Ch and Zimmerli, 2007). Since, certain percentages of the brands are just focusing on generating the profit margin and emphasise limited importance to the ethical measures. The institutions hardly prefer to contribute ant kinds of support to the specific set of enterprises.

As per the report of World Bank, the Companies of the Continental European and Asian countries have managed a huge part of the wealth in terms of capital stock. As per the report, the GDP ratio in Germany is 81% and 191% in across the UK. The corporate practices of the countries are influenced by the different legal system developed in the respective countries and the organisations. According to the opinion of Alattom et al. (2013), the countries which have economically independent trends can adopt a standardised corporate governance practices for the betterment of the organisation. It has been identified that the corporate governance practices can also facilitate for fair and transparent business practices. For an instance, Genberg (2016) cited that Indian firms are best amongst the world in terms of keeping good corporate governance. The incident of Satyam, an Indian IT firm is one of the most recent examples of the corporate governance practice. The other firm has takeover Satyam and the corporate governance while a change process had occurred. The institutional investors had also taken a major role to suggest the best option for the case of Satyam (www.oecd.org, 2016). Therefore, it can be inferred that for corporate governance system of the different countries, institutional investors are an integral part of corporate governance. Moreover, the institutional investors have an important role in conducting a better decision making an approach for the benefit of the organisation.

The effective corporate governance often underpins the organisational condition in the marketplace. In the circumstance of the existing subject, Dellinger (2008) mentioned that the managements of the majority of the Asian region are failing to incorporate effective corporate governance measures, which are leading the brands to lose on the depicted shares in the market. Moreover, due to insufficient governance structure, the enterprises have failed to formulate an effective code of conduct, which reflects on the employee behavioural aspects. The employees are staying in a huge dilemma with regards to the individual work profile. The specific mistake often leads the employees to lose the interest from serving the organisation with efficacy.  On the other side, Glover and Kirton (2006) determined that the institutions that are being operated in the Continental European region are failing to introduce the governing structure that helps the employees to create a work-life balance. Therefore, the employees within the specific enterprise are losing out of the productivity due to the reason of employee fatigueness. Therefore, effective strategic solutions are discussed beneath, which might standout facilitate the enterprises of the specific regions to improve the corporate governance measures.  According to French and Strachan (2015), the European Union has adopted the European Commission alternatives, which the boards of the listed enterprises annually confer the internal organisational procedures and also the extent to which the self-assessments have been led to the material changes. The team leaders of the YANG Hua have managed to follow the governmental measures and on the basis of which the incorporation of the standardised policies have been introduced.  The past records reflect that the management of the brands has managed to emphasise effectively on the corporate, governmental measures. This has assisted the enterprise to increase its performance measures (Crisan and Borza, 2012). The appointment of the board of members has been made effectively, which directed the enterprises to increase the measures b to incorporate the risks within the organisational culture. Therefore, the particular enterprise has managed to explore on different experiments. The specific aspect has helped the organisation to increase its employee expertise and increasing the productivity by cutting show on the monotony.

Increasing the diversity

The research done by the previous researchers signify that the corporate boards of the European region suffer from the lack of diversities. In the framework of the current subject matter, Finnegan (2012) mentioned that Corporate boards suffer from a serious lack of diversity. The statistics of 2008 reflects that the board symphony of Fortune 100 enterprises has been approximated with 71% of the white men and 29 % of women considering the minorities. According to the perception of Mahoney et al. (2010), Women segment has managed to make up only 16 % of the directors of the Fortune 500 enterprises. The above scenario specifically signifies on the lack of diversity that has been pervasive despite the existence of the studies that reflects on several concepts to present that diversity within the work culture tends to improve its performance.

Moreover, the studies conducted by the Credit-Suisse reports that the organisations of the other regions are embracing the concept of diversity within the work culture. Seekins (2006) determined that specifically, the work culture of China is promoting the workplace diversity to utilise the talents from every possible corner. The previous records reflect that the enterprise with more women culture has tended to increase the productivity by 4% than the brands that have stayed back with the traditional concept. Moreover, the brands with the diversified cultural background often tend to incur indifferent and creative thoughts in the market. The service lines of the enterprises have changed to a huge level, which has not only increased its external services but also on the individual behaviours with the peers.

Appointing the competent board of directors

In the opinion of Shaw (2006), an inference can be drawn that the Nominating Committee needs to devote sufficient time to appoint the board members that have adequate knowledge and skills to assist the board. According to Moon and Siegel (2008), the technical knowledge should never be the primary criteria of appointing the members. The members have the exclusive responsibilities of formulating the functional and the operational criteria that set a standardised performance of the organisation. Furthermore, the candidate that comes for the board interview should also be evaluated on its interpersonal skills. Since, the board interactions and relationships are highly significant to the overall board based performance. Therefore, the interpersonal skills would be highly required to judge on the communication type of the individual. Moreover, the candidate needs to have lucrative communication skills that automatically would be sufficient enough o persuade the line managers with the added roles

Surety of the timely information

Timely information leads to result in the better decision-making process. Considering the specific content of the subject matter, Kaupins and Park (2010) inferred that the senior management is highly necessitated to provide the timely information to ensure the effective board supervision and direction simultaneously. Moreover, the Board members, should not be inundated with the information.  The previous researches conducted by the scholars reflect that there needs to be a balance that is supposed to be achieved between necessary and irrelevant information (Cushway, 2015). The interactions between the senior managers and the board of members are complex to ensure the fact that the sufficient information is provided to the board.  In case the board member requests for the information, the senior managers is supposed to respond promptly to the request. The surety of the timely information is effectively important that leads to increasing the efficacy of the board members. Thus, the members can easily understand the importance of the aspects that demands the attention. Based on which the instruction and the decisions regarding the process would be formulated.

Prioritisation of risk management

Considering the opinion of Editors and Filho (2009), it has been assessed that the board needs to establish an effectual system of the risk oversight and management purpose. The concept of “Risk” is not restricted to the compliance risks aspects.  It has been considered as the broader term that tends to incorporate all the risks factors to the company, for example, the financial risks, cyber-security global warming, and other risks outside that include the compliances with different law and policy requirements.  According to the statement of Moon and Siegel (2008), effective risk administration tends to improve the decision-making process and incorporates the cost-benefit policies to highlight the risk-reward decisions.

Evaluation of the board performance

Board of members needs to have a preference of examining the individual strengths and weaknesses.  On the regular basis, the board needs to conduct a self-evaluation procedure, which involves the performances of the different directors.  The assessment process needs to be used to recognise the weaknesses of the board performance and adopting the reforms that are necessitated to improve board performance (Moon and Siegel, 2008).  The evaluation needs to on the board, which cut across the entire issues and personnel. The specific criteria also involve the interaction of the senior management with board members.

Conclusion:

The primary assertion of the study indicates that corporate governance is an essential component for every country to maintain a balanced structure of the corporate governance. While conducting the study, the role of institutional investors has been analysed. It has been identified that the role of the institutional investors is the primary disclosure where the people have faith in the funds. There has been an ongoing debate for the investor activism that can be better or worse. In the addition, it has been found that the institutional investors have to play a significant role in improving the corporate governance practices. The corporate governance of the different organisation has imposed the requisite expertise to monitor the organisational, operational activity. Furthermore, the institutional investors can also divert the main business into the large business unit.

The various considerations have been analysed in the study to decide the active parts of the institutional investors. The current study has forecasted that the institutional investors have the equal right to take part in the organisational decision making an approach. Additionally, the current study is completely conducted by involving the different corporate governance affairs of the Continental Europe and Asia. Finally, the outcome of the current issue is that the institutional investors in corporate governance can perform better monitoring and the better corporate governance practices. Hence, it can be inferred that the institutional investors are the most integral part in the corporate governance practices and the other legal system of the different originations of the Continental Europe and Asia.

References:

Adbadmin and Bank, A.D. (2016) Business opportunities. Available at: https://www.adb.org/site/business-opportunities/main (Accessed: 21 September 2016).

Alattom, Z. A.H., Mohamed Saat, M.B. and Idris, B.T. N. (2013) ‘Internal audit quality role in raising the level of  corporate governance: A case of Jordanian banks’, International Journal of Academic Research, 5(1), pp. 177–180.

Anonymous (2016) European investment bank (EIB) – European Union website, the official EU website – European commission. Available at: https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions-bodies/european-investment-bank_en (Accessed: 21 September 2016).

Asian excellence AwardsPlease visitwww.asianexcellenceawards.com for further information (2012) Available at: https://corporategovernanceasia.info/asian_excellence_awards (Accessed: 21 September 2016).

Attig, N., El Ghoul, S. and Guedhami, O. (2009) ‘DO MULTIPLE LARGE SHAREHOLDERS PLAY A CORPORATE GOVERNANCE ROLE? EVIDENCE FROM EAST ASIA’, Journal of Financial Research, 32(4), pp. 395–422.

Bianchi, M. (2014) Reform priorities in Asia: Taking corporate governance to a higher level. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/daf/ca/48806174.pdf (Accessed: 21 September 2016).

Brennan, D. (2010) Corporate social responsibility: The corporate governance of the 21st century. Edited by Ramon Mullerat. 2nd edn. Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.

Ch, W. and Zimmerli, K.R. (2007) Corporate ethics and corporate governance. Edited by Walther C. Zimmerli, Klaus Richter, and Markus Holzinger. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K.

Cheung, S.Y.L. and Chan, B.Y. (2014) ‘CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN ASIA’, Asia-Pacific Development Journal, 11(2).

Corporate governance of listed companies in china (2011) Available at: https://www.oecd.org/corporate/ca/corporategovernanceprinciples/48444985.pdf (Accessed: 21 September 2016).

Crisan, C.M. and Borza, A. (2012) ‘Social entrepreneurship and corporate social responsibilities’,International Business Research, 5(2), pp. 87–103.

Cushway, B. (2015) The employer’s handbook: An essential guide to employment law, personnel policies and procedures. 10th edn. London: Kogan Page.

Dellinger, K. (2008) ‘Women seafarers: Global employment policies and practices – by Phillip Belcher, Helen Sampson, Michelle Thomas, Jaime Veiga and Minghua Zhao’, Gender, Work & Organization, 15(4), pp. 413–415.

Editors, W. and Filho, L. (2009) Professionals’ perspectives of corporate social responsibility. Edited by Samuel O. Idowu and Walter Leal Filho. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K.

Filatotchev, I., Bruton, G., Chahine, S. and Wright, M. (2007) ‘GOVERNANACE AND PERFORMANCE OF IPOs: THE IMPACT OF PRIVATE EQUITY INVESTORS AND LEGAL INSTITUTIONS’, Academy of Management Proceedings, 2007(1), pp. 1–5.

Finnegan, F. (2012) ‘Community education, learning and development’, Community Development Journal, 47(2), pp. 303–306.

French, E. and Strachan, G. (2015) ‘Women at work! Evaluating equal employment policies and outcomes in construction’, Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 34(3), pp. 227–243.

Genberg, H. (2016) ‘Capital market development and emergence of institutional investors in the Asia-Pacific region’, Asia-Pacific Development Journal, 22(2), pp. 1–26.

Glover, J. and Kirton, G. (2006) Women, employment and organizations: Challenges for management. New York: Routledge.

Gui, S. (2015) Chp6 the role of institutional investors in corporate governance. Available at: https://www.slideshare.net/sunlygui/topic6-the-role-of-institutional-investors-in-cg (Accessed: 21 September 2016).

Jhunjhunwala, S. (2016) ‘Foreign investors and corporate governance–quid pro quo’, Indian Journal of Corporate Governance, 9(1), pp. vii–vii.

Jochem, S. (2011) ‘Nordic employment policies – change and continuity before and during the financial crisis’, Social Policy & Administration, 45(2), pp. 131–145.

John, K., De Masi, S. and Paci, A. (2016) ‘Corporate governance in banks’, Corporate Governance: An International Review, 24(3), pp. 303–321.

Kaupins, G. and Park, S. (2010) ‘Legal and ethical implications of corporate social networks’,Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 23(2), pp. 83–99.

Khan, M.A.A. (2006) ‘Corporate governance and the role of institutional investors in India’, Journal of Asia-Pacific Business, 7(2), pp. 37–54.

LI, D., Moshirian, F., Pham, P.K. and Zein, J. (2006) ‘When financial institutions are large shareholders: The role of Macro corporate governance environments’, The Journal of Finance, 61(6), pp. 2975–3007.

Mahoney, J.L., Levine, M.D. and Hinga, B. (2010) ‘The development of after-school program educators through university-community partnerships’, Applied Developmental Science, 14(2), pp. 89–105.

Mallin, C. (2008) ‘Institutional shareholders: Their role in the shaping of corporate governance’, International Journal of Corporate Governance, 1(1), p. 97.

Mayer, C. (2009) Organisation for economic Co-operation and development Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Économiques in co-operation with the Korea development institute and with the co-sponsorship of the government of Japan and the world bank conference on. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/corporate/ca/corporategovernanceprinciples/1931436.pdf (Accessed: 21 September 2016).

Moon, J. and Siegel, D.S. (2008) The Oxford handbook of corporate social responsibility. Edited by Andrew Crane, Abagail McWilliams, and Dirk Matten. New York: Oxford University Press.

Nix, P. and Chen, J.J. (2013) The role of institutional investors in corporate governance: An empirical study. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Nolan, J. (2010) ‘The influence of western banks on corporate governance in china’, Asia Pacific Business Review, 16(3), pp. 417–436.

Seekins, T. (2006) ‘Introduction: Disability and community development’, Community Development, 37(3), pp. 1–3.

Shaw, M. (2006) ‘Community development and the politics of community’, Community Development Journal, 43(1), pp. 24–36.

Srivardhan, M. (2009) ‘Role of institutional investors in corporate governance by Manya Srivardhan: SSRN’

The UK corporate governance portal – European corporate governance developments (2014) Available at: https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/knowledge/technical-resources/the-uk-corporate-governance-portal/european-corporate-governance-developments/ (Accessed: 21 September 2016).