Being the cultural and political hub, cities attract a large number of people from the adjoining rural areas where there is a dearth of adequate facilities for all. The opportunities presented by the city, the improved living conditions mainly, motivate people to migrate. However, in the wake of urbanization, the health of the people was put at stake. Lack of green space amongst the concrete jungle and pollution affects the health of the people living in the city (Adli et al., 2017). People living in the cities are highly prone to diseases due to their constant exposure to the pollutants released in the air and water (Gruebner et al., 2017). Hence, it can be noted that city life poses a serious threat to the health and wellbeing of the people.
This report aims at identifying two health impacts on the people living in the cities and the initiatives that has been taken to promote their health.
Health Impacts of living in cities
There are several significant and worrisome implications that city life can have on the health of the population. Among them, two such impacts has been identified, such as, mental stress and respiratory disorders.
A staggering degree of mutuality lies between the city life and the mental health of people. Mental stress leads to the development of several illnesses such as anxiety, distress, paranoia as well as addictive afflictions. Studies have suggested that psychological distress and urbanization has close associations (Chen et al., 2017). Studies have also revealed that people who have been brought up in cities are at higher risk of developing schizophrenia (Abbott, 2012). Urban areas are often congested where people live in close proximity, however, there is often none or poor level of social ties among the people. This kind of isolation also leads to mental stress (Matuschke and Kohler 2014). Lack of social interactions leads to mental illness and it is common in an urban setting where the people are trying to cope with the competition. City dwellers have been observed to have an increased level of activity of amygdala. Coping with the social stress of a typical urban environment, results into an over active amygdala, as seen among the people living in the cities (Heinz, Deserno and Reininghaus, 2013). Issues related to substance abuse such as cocaine and heroin has also been found to be prevalent among the city dwellers and it is considered to be one of earliest symptoms of mental illness (McCay et al., 2017). People living in the cities are also susceptible to mental stress as they are constantly exposed to loud and noisy environment. With cities around the world ‘that never sleeps’, people are also exposed to excessive lights. Both these conditions leads to disrupting the circadian rhythm of the human beings and thereby leading to mental stress caused by lack of sleep and chronic (Chen, Zaid and Nazarali, 2016). Lack of sufficient physical activity too leads to a poor mental health, making people prone to conditions such as dementia, which is quite common among city dwellers (Andrade et al., 2012).
Health Promotion Initiatives as implemented
Urbanization cannot be avoided, therefore, health-promoting initiatives are a way of dealing with the health impacts that city life has on the wellbeing of the masses. Several strategies can be implemented to improve the metal health of the city dwellers, for example:
Introduction of the concept of neuro urbanism to modify the living conditions of the people living in the city. Neuro urbanism is a field where neuro scientists, city developers, architects, gather to design cities where they prioritize the psychological wellbeing of the masses (Adli et al., 2017). The neuroscientists assess the surroundings and document the responses they receive from people. Based on their evaluation, the cities are designed which are in accordance to the thoughts and behaviours of the people, in order to reduce the level of stress. For example, introduction of more number of greener spaces can prove to be a great mood booster as it would be in high contrast against the concrete high rises majorly found in the city (Cyril, Oldroyd and Renzaho, 2013). Neuro urbanism can also inspire for the development of broader sidewalks and cycling tracks, which will promote increased physical activity among the people.
Community groups can prove to be helpful for the migrants to settle into the fast paced city life with ease (Penkalla and Kohler, 2014). These groups can prove to be helpful for social interactions, which can reduce the mental stress people usually feel in an isolated environment.
Efficient social services can actually help people to identify the symptoms of mental illness and provide help in the earlier stages itself (Yates, 2011).
Apart from long-term mental stress resulting in mental and psychological disorders, city life has other significant health impacts that have been proved to be detrimental for the sustainability of optimum living standards. According to WHO, around 1.2 million people all across the globe are killed due to urban air pollution, from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. One of the fundamental features of urban sprawl is industrial development and heavy reliance on automobile for the purpose of transportation. Although automobiles and industrial development paves the way for high living standards and requisite social and economic development, it poses severe health effects mostly by causing increased air pollution. Automobiles cause excessive and at times uncontrolled emission of several harmful gases that have been proved to cause various health issues. On an average around 30% of emitted hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen are being emitted by automobiles in the urban cities and towns. The emissions from the automobiles include harmful gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and carbon and particulate matters. In combination with emission from other related sources such as emission from fuel storage facilities and filling stations, automobiles account for a substantial amount of air pollution caused in the cities and towns. Emitted carbon and hydrocarbon particles can cause serious irritation in the eye leading to visual impairment of some sort, may lead to different obstructive or constrictive pulmonary disorders. Studies have also shown that particular matters emitted from automobiles act as confounding factors for the incidence of lung cancer (Lewtas 2007). Other harmful compounds include nitrogen oxides and lead compounds that have the potential to incite liver and kidney damage, gastrointestinal disorders, fertility issues and so on. Studies show that there is exposure to emitted particulate matters is concomitant with increased risk of diagnosis of respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, pneumonia and respiratory tract infection (Buckeridge et al. 2002). Further studies reveal that compounds produced from fossil fuel combustion are often directly or indirectly related to the prevalence of allergic respiratory diseases (D’Amato, Cecchi, D’amato and Liccardi 2010). However further studies are required for identifying the underlying mechanisms involved in such diseases for proper adaptation of preventive measures.
Urbanization is an global issue with alarming concerns at present. Unplanned and unsustainable urbanization mostly in developing countries make them utterly vulnerable to environmental and health hazards. Cost effective and sustainable strategies must be adopted to curb such alarming health effects on the urban population of the world (Sharma 2016). Technology and science can provide with alternative and more efficient methods of transport to reduce the pollution burden in urban areas (Eldredge et al. 2016). Several cost effective technologies, investment strategies and policies can be implemented by the government to reduce the health effects of such automobile and industrial air pollution in cities and towns. To improve urban physical environmental conditions the main objective is to reduce air pollutants in the atmosphere. The first and foremost step is to include regulatory laws that can restrict the emission of unwanted gases from industries and automobiles (Motard and Tessier 2016). Stringent enforcement of such laws must be follow up by governmental bodies after passing the laws. Public health campaigns are another effective health promotion stagey that can be taken up by government or non-profit organizations. Such campaigns can encourage the population to use non-polluting methods of transportation such as walking, cycling and/or using public transportation and pool cars instead of personal cars to reduce emission of polluting gases (Kohl et al. 2012). They can be made aware of the adverse health consequences that may follow if air pollution remains uncontrolled. Plants acts as a buffer to our environment absorbing carbon dioxide so often produced due to human activities. Tree planting campaigns must be conducted in order to reduce the effects of carbon dioxide, one of the major air pollutants and health risk factors.
As urbanization comes with both positives and negatives, we need to limit the environmental impacts which eventually lead to health risks in order to live sustainable life in the cities and towns. Industrialization, inefficient lad use, air pollution are some of the major issues of urbanization presently. However, several accessibility and facility advantages have made urban life expectancy greater compared to its rural counterpart. Health promotion initiatives still play an important role in sustaining healthy life in urban areas in the long run.
References
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Adli, M., Berger, M., Brakemeier, E.L., Engel, L., Fingerhut, J., Gomez-Carrillo, A., Hehl, R., Heinz, A., Mayer, J., Mehran, N. and Tolaas, S., 2017. Neurourbanism: towards a new discipline. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(3), pp.183-185.
Andrade, L.H., Wang, Y.P., Andreoni, S., Silveira, C.M., Alexandrino-Silva, C., Siu, E.R., Nishimura, R., Anthony, J.C., Gattaz, W.F., Kessler, R.C. and Viana, M.C., 2012. Mental disorders in megacities: findings from the Sao Paulo megacity mental health survey, Brazil. PloS one, 7(2), p.e31879.
Buckeridge, D.L., Glazier, R., Harvey, B.J., Escobar, M., Amrhein, C. and Frank, J., 2002. Effect of motor vehicle emissions on respiratory health in an urban area. Environmental health perspectives, 110(3), p.293.
Chen, H., Liu, Y., Zhu, Z. and Li, Z., 2017. Does where you live matter to your health? Investigating factors that influence the self-rated health of urban and rural Chinese residents: evidence drawn from Chinese General Social Survey data. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 15(1), p.78.
Chen, W., Zaid, S.M. and Nazarali, N., 2016. Environmental psychology: the urban built environment impact on human mental health planning. Malaysia Journal, 14(5).
Cyril, S., Oldroyd, J.C. and Renzaho, A., 2013. Urbanisation, urbanicity, and health: a systematic review of the reliability and validity of urbanicity scales. BMC Public Health, 13(1), p.513.
D’Amato, G., Cecchi, L., D’amato, M. and Liccardi, G., 2010. Urban air pollution and climate change as environmental risk factors of respiratory allergy: an update. Journal of Investigational Allergology and Clinical Immunology, 20(2), pp.95-102.
Eldredge, L.K.B., Markham, C.M., Kok, G., Ruiter, R.A. and Parcel, G.S., 2016. Planning health promotion programs: an intervention mapping approach. John Wiley & Sons.
Gruebner, O., Rapp, M.A., Adli, M., Kluge, U., Galea, S. and Heinz, A., 2017. Cities and Mental Health. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, 114(8), pp.121.
Heinz, A., Deserno, L. and Reininghaus, U., 2013. Urbanicity, social adversity and psychosis. World Psychiatry, 12(3), pp.187-197.
Kohl, H.W., Craig, C.L., Lambert, E.V., Inoue, S., Alkandari, J.R., Leetongin, G., Kahlmeier, S. and Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group, 2012. The pandemic of physical inactivity: global action for public health. The Lancet, 380(9838), pp.294-305.
Lewtas, J., 2007. Air pollution combustion emissions: characterization of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, 636(1), pp.95-133.
Matuschke, I. and S. Kohler (2014) Urbanization and Food Security in WorldRiskReport 2014: Focus: The City as a Risk Area (Berlin & Bonn: Alliance Development Works & United Nations University). pp. 30–34.
McCay, L., Bremer, I., Endale, T., Jannati, M. and Yi, J., 2017. Urban Design and Mental Health. Mental Health and Illness in the City, pp.1-24.
Motard, C. and Tessier, S., 2016. Initiatives in Urban Health Communities: Health Promotion at Work in Deprived Territories. Santé Publique, 28(6), pp.729-733.
Penkalla, A.M. and Kohler, S., 2014. Urbanicity and mental health in Europe: a systematic review. European Journal of Mental Health, (02), pp.163-177.
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Yates, D., 2011. Psychiatric disorders: The stress of city life. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(8), pp.430-430.
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