Many researchers have conducted case studies to progress their comprehension and the level of information concerning the hydrological procedures intricate in the rainfall-runoff revolution. The research carried out provides solutions to the water problems and proper environmental conservation. Initially, the hydrology research collected data and performed the analysis on pen and paper. With the advent of technology, it is possible for the researchers to perform very advanced analysis (Dooge, 2008). The analysis provides conducive grounds for advancement of the rainfall-runoff models. The rainfall-runoff model is used with data from a socket rainfall gauge and records on daily potential evapotranspiration (PET) to forecast flood volume and peak rates of the overflow for small drainage areas. The new technology has enabled the analysts to perform simulations on a larger scale. There are three basic components of the hydrologic cycle namely,
There are a set of hydrological models that have been developed to meet the needs of the environment. Different regions experience rainfall in different measures, as a result there is great need to strategize on the flood protection. Floods refer to the high run-off events. Runoff in streams is the integration of several upstream processes in a watershed or river basin based on the topography. The collection of hillslopes and channels generate runoff from a given pixel and ultimately contribute to streamflow and they can be overland runoff and subsurface runoff. The reason why a model is developed for the rainfall-runoff practices of hydrology is as an outcome of the confines of hydrological measurement methods. Before the new simulation techniques evolved, researchers had a restricted range of measurement practices and a limited range of measurements in both space and time. Different models seek to provide different means of numerical extrapolation or forecast on the data obtained for proper decision making. Hydrology systems are a bit complex to analyze and as a result, each researcher analyses data using his or her own perceptual model. Owing to the difference, analysts hardly agree on the crucial processes. In addition to that, most of the water tends to flow on the bedrock hence the subsurface flow process brings about a hitch in developing great models for research.
The RR model uses a library that evaluates the daily time series of rainfall and evapotranspiration data. The data is evaluated to produce everyday catchment runoff. The originator offers several frequently cast-off lumped rainfall-runoff models. There are adjustment optimizers and exhibition tools to enable model calibration. The library contains the following components,
Dams are artificial lakes. They are utilized to manage the vacillations in river flow for water supply, flood control or hydro-electric power generation. They become quite important and relevant to civilization in climates that offer the types of extremes in Australia. Building dams affects many ecological problems in many of the industrialized world. There are many reasons why dams are built are for water supply, irrigation, hydro-power, flood control, and water quality. Water supply pools needs to store sufficient water to last the nation through the famine. Operating plans or release policies for a single reservoir or a system of reservoirs is a set of guidelines for decisive the amounts of water to be stored and released under different conditions. The plans and policies are put in place to provide guidance to reservoir operators and managers. The rules in the policies are built into all the models that simulate the performance of the water resources system. These are expressed as plots of water surface elevation or current storage volume versus time of the year.
There are many environmental and water resource management problems in many nations globally. A lot of hydrological research has been carried out to figure out possible solutions to the problem (Dawdy, Lichty, & Bergmann). In the flat ground areas, rainfall water lacks proper drainage and it is left on the land as stagnant water. The stagnant water make a place less human friendly. There is dire need to come up with solutions on the rainfall water conservation and proper drainage especially on residential and commercial land.
The data posted on the Moodle database is evaluated using the rainfall-runoff library models. There are several inputs required in the case study namely rainfall, evaporation, flow gauging, and catchment area. Information obtained on the rainfall parameter is a incessant time series of rainfall data. This data represents the downpour across a given catchment area in month-day format. The potential evapotranspiration (PET) data represents the evapotranspiration across the catchment as a continuous time series. It also takes the measurements in the month-day format. The flow gauging is done based on the daily runoff input for the gauging station that is to be modelled. The catchment area, thereby, converts the inputs and outputs between the flow and depth of runoff (Podger, 2004). The output is formatted in the daily and monthly flow or depth of runoff. The model designs the output model detailed variables such as fluxes and storage depths. The output is as shown,
The paper chooses one of the following models as the method to use in the rainfall-runoff model,
The rainfall runoff executable and associated DLLs are used in the project. The sample rainfall, evaporation, and flow data is collected from across Australia in a 5.33km2 catchment area.
|
Optimization method |
Genetic Algorithm |
|
Primary Objective |
|
|
Secondary objectives |
None |
There are about four kinds of rain downpour inputs possible to use in the rainfall-runoff models. These input help in the design establishment in the flood hydrographs. These are:
The first two types are commonly used in the model implementation as inputs. These two approaches namely, historical rainfall and design storms, are quite unique to each other. They tend to produce different flood frequency estimates. The stochastic and the space-time precipitation are the models implemented to provide the ideal input for the rainfall-runoff model. These two methods have numerous caveats that hold back their applicability. They are quite suitable for a designer modelling floods in small to medium catchment areas.
|
Parameter Information |
|
|
Min |
0 |
|
Calibrated value |
0.3 |
|
Max |
1 |
The Sim-Hyd is a regular abstract rainfall-runoff model that appraises daily streamflow from daily rainfall and areal potential evapotranspiration data. The daily rainfall first fills the interception store and it is, thereafter, emptied daily by evaporation. The excess rainfall is then subjected to an infiltration function that determines the infiltration capacity. The excess rainfall that exceeds the infiltration runoff. The objective functions chosen were vital to ensure that the monthly time steps were well illustrated on the graphs shown in the results. The Nash-Sutcliffe Criterion was opted as the objective function and the model parameters were adjusted to show different simulations. Many researchers have done different models to evaluate different catchment area data for good decision making in their organizations. There are series of models fabricated to analyze the flood peaks using statistical tools and techniques. Every system must encounter errors. The RRL models take into account the errors of the data collected using statistical techniques and practices.
The enactment of a reservoir given the monthly streamflow estimates from the rainfall-runoff model was analyzed. The analysis was done on the no demand restrictions and with demand restrictions basis. The whole idea behind the reservoir analysis is to ensure that the water is well conserved. Many models have been used to evaluate the potential criteria system wide for the flood management effects from changing reservoir operational criteria for the 2012 CVFPP. There has been an increase in the density and development of the global scales. The storm water runoff from increased impermeable surfaces presents challenges on local and global scales. The flow patterns are easier to see and can be used to select best management practices for storm water management. Such management practices include re-routing of the flow out of drainage infrastructure (Knapp, Durgunoglu, & Ortel).
Conclusion
In a nutshell, the paper is able to analyze the rainfall and reservoir sections using the SimHyd and Sacramento models. The rules in the policies are built into all the models that simulate the performance of the water resources system. These are expressed as plots of water surface elevation or current storage volume versus time of the year. The RRL models are able to effectively analyze data on the rainfall parameters in a catchment area and provide information for decision making.
References
D, J. L., & Burges, J. S. (n.d.). Precipitation-Runoff Modelling: Future Directions. Applied Modeling in Catchment Hydrology, 291-312.
Dawdy, D. R., Lichty, R. W., & Bergmann, J. M. (n.d.). Synthesis in Hydrology. A Rainfall-Runoff Simulation Model for Estimation of Flood Peaks for Small Drainage Basins, pp. 1-28.
Dooge, J. C. (2008). A General Theory of the unit hydrograph. Journal of Geophys. Research, 241-256.
Knapp, V. K., Durgunoglu, A., & Ortel, T. W. (n.d.). A Review of Rainfall-Runoff Modelling for Stormwater Management. In U. G. Survey, Illinois State Water Survey: Hydrology division (pp. 4-96). Illinois District: Champaign, Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources.
Podger, G. (2004, June 18). CRC for Catchment Hydrology. Retrieved from Rainfall Runoff Library: https://www.toolkit.net.au/rrl
Lichty, R.W., and F. Liscum. 1978. A Rainfall-Runoff Modeling Procedure for Improving Estimates of T-Year (Annual) Floods for Small Drainage Basins. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 78-7, Lakewood, CO.
Marsalek, J. 1978. Research on the Design Storm Concept. Addendum to Urban Runoff Control Planning, by M.B. McPherson, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA-600/9-78-035:158-187.
McPherson, M.B. Urban Runoff Control Planning, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA-600/9-78-035.
McPherson, M.B., and F.C. Zuidema. 1977. Urban Hydrological Modeling and Catchment Research: International Summary, ASCE Urban Water Resources Research Program, Technical Memorandum No. IHP-13, New York, NY.
National Research Council (NRC). 1988. Estimating Probabilities of Extreme Floods: Methods and Recommended Research. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. Pilgrim, D.H. Bridging the Gap Between Flood Research and Design Practice. Water Resources Research 22 (9): 165-176.
Sherwood, J.M. Estimation of Volume-Duration-Frequency Relations of Ungaged Small Urban Streams in Ohio. In Proceedings of the AWRA Conference on Urban Hydrology, Denver, CO, in preparation.
Singh, K.P. Runoff Conditions for Converting Storm Rainfall to Runoff With SCS Curve Numbers. Illinois State Water Survey Contract Report 288, Champaign, IL.
Thomas, W.O. 1982. An Evaluation of Flood Frequency Estimates Based on Rainfall/Runoff Modeling. Water Resources Bulletin 18 (2): 221-230.
Thomas, W.O. 1987. Comparison of Flood-Frequency Estimates Based on Observed and Model-Generated Peak Flows. In Hydrologic Frequency Modeling. V.P. Singh (ed.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on Flood Frequency and Risk Analysis, Baton Rouge, LA, pp. 149-161.
Troutman, B.M. Errors and Parameter Estimation in Precipitation-Runoff Models. Water Resources Research 21 (8): 1195-1222.
Weiss, L.S., and A.L. Ishii. Investigation of Techniques to Estimate Rainfall-Loss Parameters for Illinois. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 87-4151.
Wenzel, H.G. Rainfall for Urban Stormwater Design. In Urban Stormwater Hydrology, D.F. Kibler (ed.), American Geophysical Union, Water Resources Monograph 7, pp. 35-67
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