Individuals emigrate from their original countries to the host countries for various reasons. Reasons for migration can range from making a better living economically for themselves and their children to getting a better education (Beyer, 2005). Here the word immigrant refers to an individual who is, or has ever been, a permanent resident or landed immigrant in Canada (Statistics Canada Dictionary, 2017). According to Statistics Canada in 2016, immigrants represented 21.9% of Canada’s total population. Immigrants face many challenges in their host countries, such as getting familiar with new values, beliefs, and language, while attempting to assimilate and maintain their traditions (Berry, 2003).
It is essential to gain more knowledge and a better understanding of immigrants and their psychological well-being since they make up a large portion of the Canadian population.
There are studies that show acculturation has a major impact on psychological well-being and adjustment in immigrants. Acculturation being the process of modifying one’s culture after being exposed to a different culture. A study concluded that first generation immigrants and second-generation youth had similar levels of depression and lower levels of positive well-being when compared to native-born youth due to various factors such as demographics, family and ethnic background characteristics (Harker,2001.
Another study revealed that a marker of acculturation was the declining health of pregnant Hispanic woman over the generations. It was further revealed that anxiety and depression got worse over the generations as well (Ruiz et al, 2012). These and other studies indicate that acculturation unfolds over generations and is a process that affects people’s well-being.
Individuals who have emigrated to a new country after the age of 6, or were born outside of the
country, are known as first-generation immigrants (Cassano, 2018 )( Merriam-Webster, 2019). Whereas, second-generation immigrants are the children of first-generation immigrants or people who were born and raised in the host country (Merriam-Webster, 2019). Third-generation immigrants are, therefore, the children of second-generation immigrants and born in the host country (Merriam-Webster, 2019). Intergenerational immigrants are individuals who are born in the host country with parents who hold two different generation statuses. First-generation immigrants go through the process of acculturation once they have arrived at the host country. Merz, Ozeke-Kocabas, Oort and Schuengel (2009) found that first generation immigrants placed higher values on family solidarity when compared to second generation.
The terminology of second and third generation, while common in the literature on immigration to use United States and Canada, is not an accurate label for individuals who are born in Canada of immigrant parents. In this paper, the second and third generation are referred to as second and third generation Canadians. One is a Canadian citizen by definition when one is born in Canada and second and third are by definition citizens, therefore they are Canadians. However, an immigrant may also become a citizen by going through the process of applying if they so choose, but they don’t have to, so for the first generation it is still most accurate to call them first generation immigrant to Canada.
The purpose of this study is to examine acculturation processes over three generations of Canadians with south Asian background and the relationships with achievement motivation and well-being. It is crucial to understand and study the factors that may influence depression and anxiety in immigrants and second and third generation Canadians. This paper will discuss previous literature on the social and psychological experiences of immigrants, Berry’s acculturation styles, achievement motivation difference across generations, and discriminations and hassles.
Over the past few decades, there have been many studies regarding the psychological experience of immigration. One of many studies conducted by Abouguendia and Noels (2001) revealed that the first-generation immigrants had higher knowledge about their native language and had more contacts with families back home than second-generation immigrants. In-group hassles are mentioned as conflict or stressors that arise from one’s ethnic group due to lack of fluency in the native language, and out-group hassles include racial discrimination and conflicts that arise from the mainstream members of the society (Abouguendia & Noels, 2001). In-group hassles are associated with depression in immigrants. However, In-group hassles associated with low self-esteem in second-generation immigrants (Abouguendia & Noels, 2001). Second-generation immigrants have more knowledge regarding the English language and depression is associated with out-group hassles. (Abouguendia & Noels, 2001). This shows that first-generation immigrants are well more connected to their heritage culture than second-generation.
Another study concluded that rates of risk behaviour were higher in 1.5 and second-generation migrants than native-born Jews in Israel; however, it was the highest in 1.5 generation migrants (Ora et al., 2012). The study describes 1.5 migrants as children of initial immigrants who arrived at a very young age and have remained in the country. Additionally, reported mental health symptoms were worse in 1.5 and second-generation migrants than native-born Jew. Non-Jewish migrant youths who have assimilated in Israel reported the highest number of mental health symptoms when compared to other acculturation strategies (Ora et al., 2012). An additional study conducted by Berry & Hou (2017) determined that second-generation immigrants in Canada who integrated had higher scores in life satisfaction and self-rated mental health, and that experiencing discrimination influences an individual to choose separation as a strategy of acculturation. The process of acculturation has a major impact on well-being in first-generation immigrants when compared to second and third generations, along with other impacting factors like discrimination and hassles. A study done in Sweden showed that at the age of 12, second generation immigrant children did not differ in self-reported mental health when compared to non-immigrant children (Dekeyser et al., 2011). It can be concluded that psychological well-being degrades over generations. A study comparing psychological well-being of immigrants, second-generation, and third-generation Canadians with south Asian background has yet to be conducted
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In this paper, acculturation is expressed as a process in which an individual adopts a new and different cultural system. Acculturation is defined slightly differently in interdisciplinary fields of anthropology, psychology and sociology. Berry has defined it as “the process that results in population-level changes that are due to contact with other cultures”(Sayegh & Lasry,1993).
Acculturation can occur at the group level, as well as the individual level (Matsumoto.D, & Juang.L, 2016). At the group level, acculturation is defined as cultural changes which occur due to the adoption of new values, ideas and belief from another culture (Berry, 2005). At the individual level, acculturation is defined as modifications (changes) that arise inside a person due to the influence of the host culture and their original culture. This happens due to the daily interaction with the mainstream culture (Berry, 2005).
There are four different types of acculturation strategies, which are integration, assimilation, separation and marginalization. Integration occurs when individuals hold on to their original culture and participate/engage in the mainstream culture (Berry, 1997; Matsumoto.D, & Juang.L, 2016). These individuals are more likely to be bicultural or multicultural and often speak more than one language (Matsumoto.D, & Juang.L, 2016). On the other hand, assimilation occurs when an individual prefers to blend in with the mainstream culture while not holding on to their own culture (Berry, 1997). Individuals will start speaking in the host country’s language and decrease interactions with other individuals from their original country (Matsumoto.D, & Juang.L, 2016). Separation strategy is described as individuals who value their original cultural and avoid the mainstream culture. Finally, marginalization is defined as individuals who maintain a little interest in their own culture while opening up a little to the host culture (Matsumoto.D, & Juang.L, 2016). Immigrants in various countries have been found to adopt these four strategies, particularly integration and assimilation (Berry & Hou 2016; Berry et al. 2006; Ora et al., 2012). Furthermore, these four strategies of acculturation have been found to relate to different levels of well-being.
For example, Berry and Hou (2016) found that integration was the most preferred strategy, followed by assimilation, and these two had the highest scores for life satisfaction in Canadian immigrants. However, mental health was scored highest in integration and separation. It was also found that immigrants had higher mental health and life satisfaction scores when compared to non-immigrants in Canada. A meta-analysis conducted by Nguyen and Benet-Mart?nez (2013) revealed that high scores of psychological well-being were associated with an integration strategy. Immigrants and second-generation immigrants would benefit from the integration strategy of acculturation because it leads to a healthier psychological well-being.
Another study done by Berry and Sabatier ( 2007) compared the second generation immigrant youth in Paris, France and the second generation immigrant youth in Montr?al, Canada and their acculturation strategies and its effect on self-esteem. Researchers concluded that youth who preferred integration scored higher on self-esteem than those who preferred marginalization and this pattern was more prominent in Canada than in France. Berry et al. (2006) found that youth who prefer marginalization reported the highest amount of discrimination, whereas youth who prefer integration reported the least amount of discrimination. Youth who prefer separation reported moderately high discrimination, whereas those who prefer assimilation have reported moderately low discrimination. A comparison of different acculturation strategies at the individual levels of immigrants, second-generation, and third-generation Canadians with south Asian background has not yet been done. It is not just the psychological well-being of first-generation immigrants, but also second and third generation Canadians, who are impacted by four types of acculturation strategies and by achievement motivation.
Deci and Ryan (1985) proposed the Self-determination Theory and believed it was three dimensions of motivation instead of uni-dimensional in 2000 after doing some reviews of the theory. The three dimensions of motivation are intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is described as engaging in an activity that the individual finds pleasurable, exciting, and enjoyable (Deci & Ryan, 1985). There is a link between intrinsic motivation and academic achievement (Areepattamannil et al, (2011). There are three subcategories of intrinsic motivation, which are intrinsic motivation towards knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation (Vallerand et al. 1989, Deci & Ryan, 2000). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is defined as engaging in an activity to attain rewards after its completion. There are four subcategories of extrinsic motivation, which are external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and integrated regulation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Amotivation is described as not engaging in an activity due to lacking intention (Deci & Ryan, 1985).
Over the past few decades, researchers have addressed correlations between achievement motivation and first, second and third- generation immigrants. A study conducted by Areepattamannil & Freeman (2008) concluded that immigrant adolescents students when compared with non-immigrants adolescents students in the GTA ( Greater Toronto Area), had higher scores in all three subcategories of intrinsic motivation- to know, to accomplish and to experience stimulation- as well as in two out of four extrinsic motivation -external regulation and introjected regulations-. There were no differences in the identified regulation, which is the subcategory of extrinsic motivation. Furthermore, this study stated that students who are intrinsically motivated tend to have higher academic achievements. Another study stated that there are lower academic achievements if students are extrinsically motivated (Becker et al., 2010). There is a pattern of overall motivation achievement to decrease as the generations progresses and motivation achievement descreases over generations and students who are intrinsically motivated achieve higher grades.
An additional study conducted by Areepattamannil, Freeman and Klinger (2011) showed that Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada performed better than adolescents in India regarding academic achievement. It was also reported that Indian immigrant students in Canada were more intrinsically motivated than students in India, whereas students in India were more extrinsically motivated than Canadian immigrant students. It shows that being an immigrant adolescent has higher levels of intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, a study concluded first and second-generation immigrant young adults in Qatar scored higher on intrinsic motivation to learn mathematics, instrumental motivation to learn mathematics and had lower mathematics anxiety compared to their native peers (Areepattamannil et al., 2015). However, first-generation immigrants scored the highest on intrinsic motivation to learn mathematics, instrumental motivation to learn mathematics followed by second generation and non-immigrants scored the lowest. It can be concluded that as one become more part of the mainstream culture motivation achievement decreases.
Discrimination and prejudice / Ethnic stereotypes
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