The increases in hate crime following the EU referendum represents merely the tip of the iceberg for hate crime. These increases come at a time when the police and the CPS are already failing to deliver an effective service to hate crime victims. Critically evaluate.
Hate
crime is a criminal offence which is motivated either entirely or partly by the fact or perception that a victim is
different from the perpetrator.[1]
According to the UK Home Office, hate crime is defined as any criminal offence
committed against a person or property that is motivated by an offender’s
hatred of someone because of their race, religion, gender, sexual orientation
and or their disability.[2]
Hate-crime is a crime that should be taken very seriously, this is because
everyone is entitled to live their lives free from bullying and harassment.[3]
It is believed that hate crimes hurt more and are more likely to involve
excessive violence.[4] It
extents further to send out a terroristic message to the members of the
victim’s group.[5]
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In
recent light, the Home Office had set up an action plan which was purely
designed to encourage people to report offences and boost support for victims.[6]
Previous provisions from section 28 to section 32[7]
states that there was an increase in sentences for racial or religious aggravation.[8]
In addition to that, according to section 146[9]
there was an increase in sentences for aggravation related to disability or
sexual orientation and this categories fall under hate crime.[10]
A Disability Rights Commission spokesman
said that it has been way too long these devastating crimes have not been
recognised in law or treated with the seriousness they deserve to be by the
police, prosecutors or the courts.[11]
Henceforth, it may be safe to say that there is a proactive step by the police
and the CPS[12] to
increase the sentencing for crimes related to hate-crime.
However, it can be observed that
there are several challenges with hate-crime that will be carefully examined.
Amongst the many problems, Bourne[13]
identified that not too many hate crimes incidents are finding their way into
hate crime statistics due to the under-reporting by the victims and the
under-recording by the police.[14]
There are two main methods for testing the amount of hate crime each year, with
one of those being the offences recoded by the police and the other is the CSEW[15],
which tries to gauge the number of crimes both reported and unreported.[16]
The fact that hate-crime is
massively under-reported makes it more difficult for the police and the CPS to
carry out any action against the perpetrator.[17]
Victims often fail to report hate incidents either because they feel that
whatever happened to them isn’t serious enough to be reported.[18]
This in turn causes more harm as the victim just lays in bearing all the hatred
projected towards them. In 2013, the CSEW discovered that the level of
reporting had declined mainly due to the fact that most victims felt that the
police could not or would not do much about it.[19]
Moving on, a government study shows
that the proportion of hate-crimes being recorded by police in England and
Wales has fallen by almost 20 percent in the past three years.[20]
This can be observed as such that the police records just under 43,000 hate
crimes a year which is only about 1% of the total amount of crimes, the CSEW
suggests that there is actually about 278,000 hate crimes a year which is way
above the number recorded by the police.[21]
In 2015 and 2016, there was a decrease by 10% in the police action against hate
crime which can be justified by a number of possible reasons such as the cuts
in police budgets, the new CPS guidance covering crimes related to social media
and the lack of officer training on how to deal with hate crime.[22]
It was held that the police only record a ‘hate crime’ if they think something
illegal has happened regardless of fact that it has been reported to the
police.[23]
In addition, hate-crimes are recorded based on perception that they are only prosecuted
on the basis of clear evidence of hostility which may leave some victims having
their expectations confounded.[24]
Some police officers themselves do not want to invest extensive time and energy
investigating hate crimes because of personal prejudices.[25]
Meanwhile, research from the Bureau
of Investigate Journalists showed that despite the numbers of recorded hate
crimes soaring “positive” outcomes for victims are falling.[26]
Despite the increase in the number of reported hate-crimes, the police and prosecutors
took action in fewer cases last year than previously with a record of only 27%
of the hate crimes recorded resulted in a “positive” outcome un 2015/2016
compared with 35% the years before.[27]
To actually prosecute a crime as a hate-crime, it requires the police to
establish hostility on the part of the perpetrator based on one of the
protected characteristics.[28]
This requirement means that the police has to try to establish hostility and
gather evidence of probative value in this regard.[29]
Some of the problems for the police therefore lie in obtaining sufficient
evidence to establish hostility, as although something might be recorded as a
hate crime, unless clear evidence is available then the CPS will often not be
able to prosecute as hate-crime.[30]
Additionally, the overriding police
culture of ensuring consistency in the way the officers carry out their
policing practice appears to be restricting officers from being aware that a
knowledge of social context is necessary to understand the impact of such
incidents on a particular community and to further offer a far more responsive
service.[31]
In 2016 it was reported that hate crime prosecutions in England and Wales fell
by almost 10% last year even though the number of recorded incidents increased.[32]
Paul Giannasi[33] alleged
that the gap could be the result of poor recording or because the hate-crime
victims had not described their assault as a hate offence when they spoke to
the police.[34]
Steve White[35]
said that crime victims don’t trust police and thousands of offences are going
unrecorded because people feel that nothing will be done regarding their
report.[36]
This study will focus on hate crime towards Muslims, also known as Islamophobia.[37]
In late 1990s following the
publications of the Runnymede Trust
report on “Islamophobia: A Challenge for us all” defined Islamophobia as an
unfounded hostility towards Islam.[38]
The report also refers to the practical consequences of such hostility in
unfair discrimination against Muslim individuals and communities and to the
exclusion of Muslims from mainstream political and social affairs.[39]
Whilst Islamophobia has existed for thousands of years, it has recently become
a major problem in the society.[40]
Many incidents have clearly portrayed how Islamophobia is a type of hate-crime, one of which was reported in 2014 whereby a 31-year-old female student was repeatedly stabbed while walking alone in Colchester and this murder was said to have been because she was wearing a ‘Muslim attire’.[41] The leading cause for Islamophobia is usually misinformation or complete lack of information regarding the religion.[42] There is often misrepresentation of Muslims in he media which then causes an inflate in the number of Islamophobic incidences.[43] Studies have shown that the media plays a significant role for its negative reporting and association of Islam with terrorism.[44] In addition, recent research by the University of Cambridge has shown that mainstream media reporting about Muslim communities is contributing to an atmosphere of rising hostility toward Muslims in Britain.[45] The media opposed this statement by saying that they are only reporting the facts and are not responsible for the consequences, however it was argued by the opposition that the media have a huge responsibility when it comes to reporting these issues.[46] There were three main problems identified by Fiyaz Mughal[47], first being that there is a lack of understanding the language of Islamophobia thrown at victims in any incidents.[48] Secondly, there is very little training on how to ask relevant questions to pull out anti-Muslim cases.[49] Finally, the recoding processes are not in line with each other; different forces flag it as different categories such as one, anti-Muslim and other religious hate-crime, thus this shows a lack of uniformity.[50]
It is to be noted that based on
Tell MAMA[51],
about 60 percent of the hatred were directed towards Muslim women and are more
likely to occur on the street.[52]
This is based on an assumption that Muslim women are much more likely to be
targeted due to the visibility of their headscarf.[53]
Thus, making them stand out in the crowd allowing attackers to spot them based
on their appearance. In 2015, a pregnant Muslim woman was verbally abused on a
bus in London, her attacker kept yelling ISIS and claimed that she shouldn’t be
in this country since she is Muslim.[54]
Additionally, in 2016, a Muslim student had her face veil ripped off in a
racist attack outside King’s College London.[55]
Such immense hatred towards Muslim women along the years has been a clear
indication that Islamophobia has been and still is a major concern. There has
been a high profile of anti-Muslim hatred incidents on public transport which
concerned the communities.[56] BTP[57]
recorded racially motivated hate crimes across railways in 2015 has increased
37% over the previous five years.[58]
Many
monitoring groups and campaigners pointed out that hate crime is often
under-reported with Muslims in particular as they are reluctant to contact the
police for fear they wont be taken seriously.[59]
According to Leon Moosavi, “A lot of people think Islamophobia is exaggerated
but actually minorities generally under-report; someone might be called a Paki
or terrorist but won’t even tell anyone.”[60]
This is a general problem for all types of hate-crime as the victims feel that
their complains won’t be taken seriously.
It
can be observed that previously, Islamophobic reports were not taken seriously.
Home Office analysis of police recorded crime data and the CSEW show that in
2015, only 43 percent of hate crime offences came to the attention of the
police.[61]
However, Theresa May has now made it mandatory for police to record anti-Muslim
incidents and take it on par to anti-Semitism.[62]
This is an important step to give local communities a voice in addressing local
policing needs for victims of Islamophobic attacks and also to effectively and
inevitably render Tell MAMA obsolete.[63]
The police force needs to take a step forward towards recording all crimes that
are reported regardless of its seriousness, as this can be seen to be a major
problem in other hate crime categories as well.
In 2005, The Guardian commissioned
an ICM poll which indicated an increase in anti-Muslim incidents, particularly
after the London bombings in July.[64]
Besides, one of the directors of Faith Matters who also runs Tell MAMA claimed
that the murder of Lee Rigby by two extremists in Woolwich had also caused the
number of Islamophobia crimes to jump significantly.[65]
Tell MAMA reckoned Islamophobia crimes to a 373% increase in the week after
Rigby’s murder.[66]
The third incident was the Rochdale child grooming scandal which was believed
to be accountable for the rise of crimes due to Islamophobia.[67]
Last but not least, it was held in a speech by Dr Imran Awan that Brexit had
helped fuel and empower the British public to be more Islamophobic. In light of
the rise in hate-crime following Britain’s decision to leave the EU[68]
the UK Home Office launched an anti-hate crime campaign after the spike in
attacks.[69] There
was undeniably a sharp increase in the number of racially or religiously
aggravated crimes recorded by the police in England and Wales following the EU
Referendum.[70]
This can be seen based on the fact that the reports of hate crime have risen 57
percent after the EU Referendum vote[71]
Police believe that this was the worst on record.[72]
Some claim that the anti-Muslim
hatred only begun after the EU Referendum, Tell MAMA however argued by stating
that its annual report showed the surge in anti-Muslim hatred, fuelled by
terrorist incidents, was happening well before the EU Referendum.[73]
The number of religious motivated hate crimes were mounting at 3,293 in
2014/2015 to 4,400 in 2015/2016 which is an increase of 34%.[74]
In addition, the racial motivated hate crime also increased from 42,862 to
49,419, showing an increase of 15% change from years 2014/2015 to 2015/2016.[75]
It was affirmed in the research conducted by Tell Mama that every week there
are roughly about 40 to 50 reports on Islamophobic incidences, however after
the EU Referendum, they recorded 30 such incidents in three days alone.[76]
Some events recorded were directly related to Brexit as such that people were
telling Muslim women ‘We voted you out, you shouldn’t be here’.[77]
To summarise, Brexit has contributed a significant amount of the hatred towards
Muslims in this country.
On this point, it should be noted that the level of hate crime in the United States (US) was parallel to the hate crime rate in the United Kingdom (UK) more so after the election of Donald Trump as the president. This statement can be proven based on the hate crime complaints received between November 8 2016 to February 19 2017 which shows a 42% increase compared to the same period, the year before.[78] Subsequently, the hate crime incidents recorded post Brexit, in July 2016 had a 41% increase compared to the same month a year before.[79] It was held that the leave campaign for the EU Referendum changed its tack and shifted focus to immigration and precisely how to bring it to a screeching halt.[80] However, it was opposed as vote leave insisted that its campaign had always intended to focus hard on immigration particularly on its final phases.[81] It was held that Europe’s open door policy to Muslim immigrants has utterly failed.[82] However, the refugee crisis, the perceived onslaught of Syrian immigration and Islamic immigration has made a bigger impact on perception of immigration in Europe than in the US.[83] On the other hand, Trumps’ campaign focused heavily on immigration and scaling back environmental regulations.[84] There is a clear resemblance between these two campaigns as both focused on kicking out immigrants, but there is a greater theory behind each of it. In conclusion, it can be seen that in this current era, the presidency of Trump and Brexit has become one of the major contributing factors behind the rise in Islamophobia
Richard Cohen[85],
blamed the recent surge in hate-crimes on Trump and his divisive language
throughout the campaign.[86]
It should be known that the number of hate groups specifically targeting
Muslims in the US grew by 67% in 2015, the year Trump launched his campaign.[87]
The report from a non-partisan centre examined a steep rise in hate crimes
following Trump’s calling for a ban on Muslims entering the US after the San
Bernardino terror attack.[88]
Research suggests that discrimination increases psychological distress, reduces
level of happiness and worsens overall health for Muslims.[89]
Although, this happens in the US, it is manifested in this country.
Moving on, regarding the focus of Brexit on bringing immigration to a
stop was clarified by the labour’s deputy leader who stated that there would
still be migration to Britain from outside EU if Britain left.[90]
On the contrary, most Brexit supporters voted to leave the EU to prevent
Muslims from immigrating to Britain.[91]
A Pew Research study conducted in 2015 found as of 2010, the EU was a home to
13 million Muslim immigrants.[92]
A study in the same year by YouGov found that 56% of British people think Islam
stances a major threat to Western liberal democracy.[93]
Thus, it is safe to say that there is equal amount of hostility shown by Trump
and EU citizens towards Muslims.[94]
In 2012, the government introduced a hate crime action plan which had a
motto ‘Challenge it, Report it, Stop it’.[95]
The plan was brought together under three core principles, namely; to prevent
hate crime, to increase reporting and access to support and to improve the
operational response to hate-crimes.[96]
A 2014 progress review of the 2012 action plan found that the reporting of
hate-crime and the understanding of police and communities of the impact of
hate crime had both improved.[97]
It was 2012 plan had failed to reduce disability hate-crime, online hate-crime
and anti-Muslim-hatred.[98]
The 2014 progress review had worked towards tackling anti-Muslim-hatred which
in turn lead to the rise of a number of projects including the launch of Tell
Mama, the first third party reporting service to record incidents and support
victims of anti-Muslim-hatred.[99]
In July 2016, the amount of hate-crimes increased tremendously after
Brexit, thus the government came up with a new action plan titled ‘Action
Against Hate’ which was primarily to prevent and respond to hate-crime,
increase reporting of hate-crime incidents, improve support for victims and to
build an understanding of hate-crime.[100]
The government is moving to recognise the seriousness of such crimes and why
there has to be a zero tolerance approach to any form of hate-crime.[101]
The 2016 action plan is no where similar to the 2012 action plan as it focuses
on five different areas, which are to prevent hate crime, to respond to hate-crime
in our communities, to increase the reporting of hate-crime, to improve support
for the victims of hate crime and to build the understanding of hate crime.[102]
The 2016 action plan which was deemed to lessen the amount of Islamophobic
hate-crimes isn’t working well enough as such stated that this hate-crime
action plan fails to address Islamophobia.[103]
Moreover, it was also held that the CPS will refresh its policy and legal
guidance for prosecutors on racially and religiously aggravated crime as it
wasn’t effective in the 2012 plan.[104]
In
conclusion, it is safe to say that hate crime was prevalent even before the EU
Referendum, its however been pushed forward in recent times.[105] It is submitted that one of the many strategies for
combatting Islamophobia is to educate the general public about Islam and build
personal relations with Muslims.[106]
Besides, campaigns should be held in order to assure Muslim people that their
voices will not fall on deaf ears, this will in turn cause the number of
reported hate-crimes to rise.
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[1] Jack Levin and Jack Mcdevitt,
‘Prepared for THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PEACE, VIOLENCE, AND CONFLICT, 2 hate crimes’
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[2] Martin O’Brien and Majid
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[3] ‘Hate crime – what it is and how
to report it’, (11 November 2013)
<http://www.cps.gov.uk/northeast/victims_and_witnesses/hate_crime/>
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[4] Barbara Perry, Hate crimes (Greenwood
Publishing Group 2009) 78.
[5] Ibid
[6] Hayden Smith, ‘New government
urges tougher sentences for hate crimes after spike in reports following EU
referendum result’ The Independent – UK Politics (7 January
2023)
<http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-eu-referendum-hate-crime-racism-tougher-jail-sentences-a7152346.html>
accessed 4 March 2017.
[7] Crime and Disorder Act 1998
[8] ‘Guidance on Prosecuting cases of
homophobic and Transphobic crime: Legal guidance: Crown prosecution service’,
(13 February 2017) <http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/h_to_k/homophobic_and_transphobic_hate_crime/>
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[9] Criminal Justice Act 2003
[10] Criminal
Justice Act 2003′ (Legislation.gov.uk) <http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/44/section/146>
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[11] Clare Dyer, ‘Tougher penalty for
hate crimes’ The Guardian (18 February 2017) <https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2003/oct/31/ukcrime.gayrights>
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[12] Crown Prosecution
Service
[13] (2002)
[14] Derek McGhee, Intolerant
Britain? Hate citizenship and difference: Hate, citizenship and… (McGraw-Hill
Education (UK) 2005) 30.
[15] Crime survey for
England and Wales
[16] George Arnett, ‘Hate crime in England and wales: How prevalent is
it?’ The Guardian (28 February 2017)
<https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/dec/17/how-prevalent-hate-crime-england-wales>
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[17] 170, 000 hate crimes go unreported
in the UK each year, according to new research’,
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4 March 2017.
[18] ‘Race equality: Why report hate
crime?’, (2012)
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accessed 4 March 2017.
[19] ‘Race and hate crime go unreported
because people believe police will do little’,
<http://www.open.edu/openlearn/people-politics-law/politics-policy-people/society-matters/race-and-hate-crime-go-unreported-because-people-believe-police-will-do-little>
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[20] Oliver Wright, ‘Exclusive: Race
hate – a crime the police will not solve’ The Independent – Crime (1
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[21] George Arnett, ‘Hate crime in England
and wales: How prevalent is it?’ The Guardian (28 February
2017)
<https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/dec/17/how-prevalent-hate-crime-england-wales>
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[22] Josh Robbins, ‘Hate crime is on
the rise, but police are taking less action against suspects — the bureau of
investigative journalism’ (2 March 2017)
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[23] Joseph O’Leary, ‘Hate incidents
aren’t the same as hate crimes’ (12 January 2017)
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[24] Dr Loretta Trickett and Dr Paul
Hamilton, ‘Hate Crime Training Of Police Officers In Nottingham: A Critical
Review’ (2016) <http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/28089/7/5642Trickett.pdf>
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[25] Barbara Perry, Hate crimes (Greenwood
Publishing Group 2009) 71.
[26] Emily Apple, ‘While We’re All
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(The Canary, 2016)
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[27] Josh Robbins, Melanie Newman and
Harri Davies, ‘Hate Crime Is On The Rise, But Police Are Taking Less Action
Against Suspects — The Bureau Of Investigative Journalism’ (The Bureau of
Investigative Journalism, 2016)
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[28] Dr Loretta Trickett and Dr Paul
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[29] Ibid
[30] Ibid
[31] Vicky Kielinger and Susan
Paterson, ‘Hate crimes against London’s Muslim communities an analysis of
incidents recorded by the metropolitan police service’ (2005)
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[32] Nick Hallett, ‘Hate crime
prosecutions fall despite supposed ’surge’ after Brexit’ (Breitbart London,
5 September 2016) <http://www.breitbart.com/london/2016/09/05/hate-crime-prosecutions-fall-despite-surge-reporting-brexit/>
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[33] from the National
Police Chief’s Council
[34] BBC, ‘Hate crimes prosecutions
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[35] Police Federation
chairman
[36] Chris Greenwood, ‘Crime victims
don’t trust police and thousands of offences are going unrecorded because
people feel ‘nothing will be done’ says federation chairman’ Daily Mail (6
January 2015) <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2898266/Victims-don-t-trust-police-officer-says-thousands-offences-going-unrecorded-people-feel-done.html>
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[37] Rob Owen Bell, ‘Islamophobia is
code for race-hate and religious bigotry – let’s force Britain First off our
streets’ (Huffington Post, 23 December 2014)
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[38] ‘The policy context’, (2013)
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[39] Hassan Mahamdallie, ‘Islamophobia:
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[40] ‘Islamophobia – Islamophobia facts
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[41] ‘Islamophobic
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[42] ‘Islamophobia – Islamophobia facts
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[43] JAN Trust and View →, Misrepresentation Of Muslims In The
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[45] Miqdaad Versi, ‘Why the British
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[46] ‘UK Media Stirring Up
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[47] Founder of Tell
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[48] Tomas Jivanda, ‘Islamophobia:
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[49] Ibid
[50] Ibid
[51] Measuring
Anti-Muslim Attacks
[52] Radhika Sanghani, ‘Islamophobic
Britain: Where Muslim women are spat on, punched and covered in faeces’ The
Telegraph (7 September 2015)
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[53] Nisa Yildrim, ‘Anti-Muslim hate
crimes in UK increased significantly in 2015’ (14 January 2017)
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[54] DOAM – Documenting Oppression
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[55] Paul Wright, ‘Islamophobia in
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[56] ‘Action Against Hate’ (2016)
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[57] British Transport Police
[58] Pamela Duncan, ‘Race Hate Crimes
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[61] Dilly Hussain, ‘In Fighting Islamophobia, British Muslims Need Fairness
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[62] Sophie McIntyre, ‘Theresa May Says
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accessed 12 March 2017.
[92] Melissa Etehad, ‘Analysis | This
Video Shows What Some Brexit Supporters Are Fearful Of: Muslim Immigration’ (Washington
Post, 2016)
<https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/27/this-video-shows-what-some-brexit-supporters-are-fearful-of-muslim-immigration/?utm_term=.533bd92d634d>
accessed 12 March 2017.
[93] Jack Sommers, ‘EXCLUSIVE: Most Of
Us Think Islam Is A Threat To Britain’ (The Huffington Post, 2015) <http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/07/03/77-bombings-muslims-islam-britain-poll_n_7694452.html>
accessed 12 March 2017.
[94] Gideon Rachman, ‘Trump, Islam And
The Clash Of Civilisations’ Financial Times (2017)
<https://www.ft.com/content/18eb6c9e-eee2-11e6-930f-061b01e23655>
accessed 31 March 2017.
[95] ‘Hate Crime Action Plan: Challenge
It, Report It, Stop It – GOV.UK’ (Gov.uk, 2012)
<https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/hate-crime-action-plan-challenge-it-report-it-stop-it>
accessed 13 March 2017.
[96] Liz Ellis, ‘HATE CRIME POLICY’
(2013) <http://www.stockporthomes.org/media/1375/hate-crime-policy.pdf>
accessed 31 March 2017.
[97] Home Office, ‘Action Against Hate-
The UK Government’S Plan for Tackling Hate Crime’ (2016).
[98] HM Government, ‘Challenge It, Report
It, Stop It- Delivering The Government’S Hate Crime Action Plan’ (2014).
[99] Ibid
[100] ‘Hate Crime Action Plan 2016 –
GOV.UK’ (Gov.uk, 2016) <https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/hate-crime-action-plan-2016>
accessed 13 March 2017.
[101] ‘Response To Government Hate Crime
Action Plan | Stop Hate UK’ (Stophateuk.org, 2016)
<https://www.stophateuk.org/2016/07/28/response-government-hate-crime-action-plan/>
accessed 15 March 2017.
[102] Home Office, ‘Action Against Hate- The UK Government’s Plan For Tackling
Hate Crime’ (2016).
[103] Ala Abbas, ‘Hate Crime Action Plan
Fails To Address Islamophobia – The Muslim News’ (The Muslim News, 2016)
<http://muslimnews.co.uk/newspaper/islamophobia/hate-crime-action-plan-fails-address-islamophobia/>
accessed 31 March 2017.
[104] Ibid
[105] Brendan O’Neill, ‘The Truth Behind
The Brexit Hate Crime ‘Spike’ | Coffee House’ (Coffee House, 2017)
<https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2017/02/truth-behind-brexit-hate-crime-spike/>
accessed 31 March 2017.
[106] Daniel Tutt, ‘How Should We Combat
Islamophobia?’ (The Huffington Post, 2013)
<http://www.huffingtonpost.com/daniel-tutt/how-should-we-combat-islamophobia_b_3149768.html>
accessed 31 March 2017.
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