Integumentary system:
Anatomy:
The integumentary system is mainly seen to comprise of the skin as well as the appendages. The epidermis is mainly the top layer of the skin that is mainly comprised of the epithelial cells. It is mainly the initial barrier to the external environment. It does not contain any blood vessels. The dermis is the middle layer of the skin and is mainly seen to be comprising of irregular connective tissue that is dense (Jeong et al. 2018). It also has areolar connective tissue like that of collagen as well as elastic arranged in a diffusedly bundled and woven pattern. The hypodermis is the subcutaneous layers and is seen to invaginate in to the layer of the dermis.
Physiology:
The integumentary system helps in the development of skin color. Pigment as that of the melanin, carotene as well as hemoglobin contribute to skin color. Emotions also influence the skin colors. Hair growth cycle also takes place in the skin layers and proceeds through the stages of growth and shedding like anagen, catagen as well as telogen. Nail growth is also separated in the three stages called the germinal matrix, sterile matrix, dorsal roof of the nail fold.
Related system: vitamin D that is activated by the skin mainly helps in the provision of the calcium to that of the bone matrix, and the skin also act as the first line of defense for the immune system (Maulsin et al. 2015). Sensory receptors that are the parts of the integumentary system is also helpful in providing information about the outside environment to the nervous system. Nerves are also seen to contribute in controlling the activity of the sweat glands.
Pathophysiology:
When the skin is exposed to too much sun, the skin may get wrinkled. This mainly takes place as cellular destruction of the cells in the skin and in extreme cases, DNa may also gets damaged that result in cancer. Another disorder that also takes place is the irregular accumulation of melanocytes in the skin that results in the formation of freckles.
Defense and immune response:
The integumentary system has a property called the skin immunity. This property allows resistance of infections from different pathogens. Besides, acting as a passive physical barrier against different types of infection, it is also seen to be comprising of innate as well as adaptive immune system (Pang et al. 2017). This actively allows fighting infections. Skin microbiota is also seen to play an important role in homeostasis of the tissues as well as in the local immunity.
Medication and contraindications:
Mupirocin is mainly seen to treat skin infections like that of impetigo and is anti-biotic in nature. It is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to mupirocin. It is also contraindicated to the excipients of mupirocin cream. Clotrimazole is an antifungal medication that helps in treatment of ringworm as well as athlete foot. The contraindications are that is is hypersensitive to that of imidazole as well as in the first trimester of pregnancy.
Degenerative changes:
Stem cell production is seen to decline with age. This causes the epidermal cells to get slower in the reproduction. Therefore, they become lager as well as highly irregular. Ultimately, this results in thinner as well as more translucent skin with aging. This results in more skin injuries as well as infections and tears.
Types of trauma:
Some forms of trauma in the integumentary system are bruises, rashes, lacerations, blisters, acne and others.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
While caring for the skin like that in fever, nurses should promote cool environment, encourage taking of fluids, administration of antipyretic medications and reassess temperature frequently. For different types of wounds, effective dressing like dry or wet dressing should be applied depending upon the type of the wound. Moreover, for rashes, acne, pimple and others proper medications need to be provided. Proper education to the patients about skin treatment, effective moisturizing, and keeping skin clean should also be provided.
Muscoskeletal systems:
Anatomy:
Bones: bones in the skeletal system are formed of two types of tissues that are the compact dense bones that are solid. Other is the spongy bones that are cancellous. The human skeleton is mainly seen to be composed of both fused as well as individual bones that mainly remain supported by ligaments, muscles, cartilage and tendons (Buckup et al. 2016)
Joints:
These structures mainly help in connecting the individual bones. It also helps the bones to move against each other to cause movement. There are three types of joints – the diarthroses that allows huge extensive mobility, amphiathroses that allows some movement and the synathroses where joints are immovable.
Muscles:
Three important muscle types are there. Smooth muscles are seen to spindle shaped and help in movement of substances through lumen of organs. On the other hand, cardiac and skeletal muscles have striations. Skeletal muscles are mainly seen to attach to bones and are mainly arranged in opposing groups as well as joints. The musco-skeletal system do not comprise of cardiac muscles (Down et al. 2016).
Physiology:
The musco-skeletal system is mainly seen to be comprised of the bones, muscles, tendons, cartilages, joints and ligaments as well as other connective tissues of the body. They support and bind the tissues and organs together. They mainly help in supporting the body, allowing the motions and protecting of different vital organs within the body.
Related system:
The nervous systems are complex information processing system where the senses are mainly acting as input and the output is conducted by the musculoskeletal system like withdrawing of hand when touched a hot object and others. The circulatory system is seen to bring nutrients to the muscles and take away wastes for proper functioning and respiration of the muscle cells. The immune system interacts with the musculoskeletal system where lymph vessels run through muscles. The regulation action of the muscles also helps to pump lymph through lymph vessels.
Pathophysiology:
Osteoporosis is mainly seen to occur when there is increased loss in the total mass of the bone due to an imbalance between the absorption of the bone and the formation of the bone. This is mainly related to the aging process as well as decrease in the level of estrogen in post menopausal women. Osteomalacia as well as rickets results from softening of the bone matrix. This is mainly caused by deficiency in the level of calcium as well as phosphate (Parry et al. 2015).
Defense and immune response:
Bones are seen to contain marrows that help in production of red blood cells as well with the white blood cells. The cells are helpful in allowing the body to fight and expel different types of harmful bacteria, foreign material as well as environmental toxins. The white blood cells are helpful in the isolation and destruction of the harmful particles and may transport them to the kidneys or the bowels for excretion and egestion. The WBC includes natural killer cells that identify cells which are not of self markers and triggers lysis or apoptosis.
Medication and contraindications:
Cyclobenzaprine is one of the form of muscle relaxer that is used to treat muscle pains, spasms as well as stiffness. The main contraindications are the hypersensitivity to other drugs, myocardial infarction, heart block, hyperthyroidism, and many others. Robaxin is a form of methocarbamol that is also a muscle relaxor and helps in the relieving of stiffness and pain caused by sprains, strains and other injury to muscles. The contraindications are renal impairment, seizure disorder, cautious in elderly patients, hypersensitivity to latex.
Degenerative changes:
Loss of bone density is seen in women of old age. In aged people, bones are seen to become fragile and thereby break. Joints are also affected due to alterations in the cartilage and the connective tissues. Muscles are seen to become less toned and lose their ability to contract swiftly. Muscles also shrink and lose mass.
Types of trauma:
Contusion, strain, sprain, fracture, tear of ligaments are some traumas associated with the system.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
Different disorders have different approaches of treatment. Fractures, sprains, strains and other all require expert assistance, frequent monitoring, effective management and advice. However, most of the disorders affect the quality of lives of the patients and therefore nurses should refer physiotherapists, occupational therapists and social workers to help patients to overcome their dependency and live successful lives. Relieving pain, monitoring and reducing the risk of neurovascular complications such as compartment syndrome and VTE is also done.
Cardiovascular system:
Anatomy: the cardiovascular system is mainly comprised of heart, veins, arteries, capillaries and blood vessels. It mainly helps in circulating blood as well as lymph. The circulatory system mainly helps in delivering oxygen and other nutrients to different parts of body with the help of the blood. It comprises of arteries and veins where arteries are seen to carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood.
Physiology: the heart mainly comprises of pair of atria and a pair of ventricles. The deoxygenated blood enters into right auricles and then passes to right ventricles from where through pulmonary arteries, it enter lungs for purification. Then pure oxygenated blood enters into left atria and then to left ventricles, and is carried but aorta to different parts of the body. Deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body again enters in right atria thereby following a cycle (Brown and Grinedling 2015).
Related system:
The circulatory system is related with the respiratory system. The former mainly helps in carrying oxygen to the cells where oxygen is required in respiration to produce energy by the cells. Moreover, the circulatory system also carries nitrogenous waste products to the excretory system of the body so that the nitrogenous waste products are eliminated through the urine.
Pathophysiology:
Coronary artery diseases take place when there is building up of fatty deposits in the arteries. This is mainly seen to result in reduction of the blood flow through the arteries and this can in turn result in the leading of heart attack. Another is the disorder called the heart arrhythmia that is mainly an irregular heartbeat as well as cardiac dysrhythmia and refers to conditions which shows that the heartbeat is irregular, too slow as well as too fast (Gatica et al. 2015). It may result in angina or chest pain, breathlessness, palpitations, dizziness, weakness as well as diaphoresis.
Defense and immune response:
When the body is having any virus or other infection, the cardiopulmonary system spread the news to different parts of the body. The immune system is seen to counteract in this situation by sending white blood cells to the cells that are infected by virus as well as other infection through the blood stream only (Yang et al. 2015).
Medication and contraindications:
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are types of vasodilators that help in widening the blood vessels and helps in lowering down the blood pressure. This improves blood flow and decrease the workload of the heart. Some of the contraindications are hypersensitivity to ACE inhibitors, previous angioedema with ACE inhibitor therapy and renal artery stenosis. Beta-blockers are mainly seen to slow down the heart rate and helps in reduction of the blood pressure. It also limits some of the damages caused to heart during systolic heart failures. The contraindications are patients with bradycardia, second or third degree heart block , asthma should avoid them.
Degenerative changes:
The pacemaker system of the heart has a natural pacemaker system where some pathways develop fibrous tissues as well as fat deposits with a slight increase in heart size. Capillary walls thicken. Aorta becomes stiffer and less flexible. Blood volume decreases, as there is less fluid in the blood with normal aging.
Types of trauma:
Different types of traumas are the artherosclerosis, arrhythmia, valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathy, heart attack and many others.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
Nursing interventions mainly include pharmacological interventions that include different medications. Besides, non-pharmacological interventions involve cardiac rehabilitation. Proper patient education about effective lifestyle management is also helpful in ensuring safe lives by the individuals.
Nervous system:
Anatomy:
The nervous system mainly comprises of two important divisions. One of them is the central nervous system and it mainly comprises of brain as well as spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system mainly refers to the collective term of all the structures of the nervous system that does not lie in the central nervous system. These parts help in coordination of the different organs through the transmission of the signals to and from different parts of the body (Louveau et al. 2015).
Physiology:
The nervous system helps in generation of the nerve impulses through the procedure of action potential initiation as well as generation, depolarization, graded potential, repolarisation, salutatory conduction and others (Levy et al., 2014). Nerve impulse works through stages like resting membrane electrival conditions, initiation of local depolarization by the stimulus, depolarization and generation of action potential, propagation of action potential, as well as repolarisation. Communication of the neurons at the synapse as well as autonomic functioning is seen to take place.
Related system:
The endocrine system works in close association with the brain and the central nervous system for effective controlling of the specific hormones as well as the enzymes. The digestive and excretory systems are also seen to work in both conscious with unconscious ways with that of the nervous system even during the times of eating, drinking, urinating and many others.
Pathophysiology:
Alzheimer’s disease occurs as a degenerative brain disorder that mainly associate the occurrence of the progressive as well as the irreversible decline of the memory and deterioration of the cognitive abilities. Stroke is the sudden impairment of the brain function that mainly results from the substantial reduction in the flow of the blood to the different parts of the brain.
Defense and immune response:
There exists a biochemical as well as the electrophysiological interactions between the nervous systems as well as the immune system. This helps the neurons from pathogens. Neurons are protected against different diseases by the effective maintenance of the selectively permeable barriers (Paxinos 2014). This involves mediating neuroinflammation and wound healing in the different types of damaged neurons and conduct effective mobilization of the host defenses against pathogens.
Medication and contraindications:
Carbamazepine is mainly used to control seizures as well as other symptoms of the epilepsy. They help in reduction of the excessive stimulation of the brain. The contraindications of this medication is porphyria, anamnesis of the bone marrow depression as well as atrioventricular block. Amphetamines mainly act as potent central nervous system stimulant. These are highly addictive, hypertension, agitation, depression, bipolar disorders, Toureette’s syndrome, glaucoma, hyperthyroidism and many others.
Degenerative changes:
Brain and the spinal cord are both seen to undergo atrophy where they actually lose the nerve cells. Moreover, the nerve cells are also seen to pass different messages quite slowly in comparison to that of the past. Nerve cells break down and waste products are accumulated in the brain tissues.
Types of trauma:
Stroke, brain tumors, Steroids and Traumatic Brain Injury and many others are different types of trauma.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
Pharmacological interventions are to be included where the nurses need to provide correct medication regarding the disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy, mindfulness based therapy and other therapeutic interventions can be provided. Supportive compassionate care is needed as most of the neurological disorders are irreversible and need to be effectively managed by proper counseling and education.
Lymphatic system:
Anatomy:
The lymphatic system mainly is seen to involve an extensive network of vessels that mainly pass through almost all the stissue of the body. This helps to allow for the movement of the fluid called the lymph. This is seen to circulate in a similar way like that through blood.
Physiology:
The lymphatic system is mainly seen to participate in maintaining the fluid balance as it helps in returning the excess fluids as well as proteins from the tissues that cannot be returned through the blood vessels. Moreover, much of the fats are absorbed from the alimentary tract and are accumulated in the gut membrane in the small intestine that are adopted by the lymphatic system (Aspelund et al. 2016).
Related system:
The lymphatic system works with cardiovascular system for returning fluids of the body to the blood. It also acts with digestive systems carrying nutrients to those portions where blood cannot reach.
Pathophysiology:
Lymphoma is a form of cancer that affects the lymphatic system is one disorder that destroys quality life. Lymphadenitis may occur when the lymph nodes become infected and the nodes are seen to become filled up with pus that creates an abscess. Lymphedema may occur when there ia an obstruction for which the fluid might not drain effectively. Due to build up of the fluid, swelling occurs in the leg or the arms (Alfnso et al..
Defense and immune response:
The lymphatic systems are seen to produce while blood cells called lymphocytes. T cells and B cells are the lymphocytes that are seen to travel through the lymphatic systems. When they reach the lymph nodes, they are seen to get filtered and gets activated when they come in contact with that of the virus, bacteria and others. From this stage, the pathogens become antigens and the activated lymphocytes become antibodies and start to defend the body. They are also able to develop antibodies from their memories if they had already encountered the specific pathogen in the past.
Medication and contraindications:
Acetaminophen is one of the medications that is mainly used for swollen lymph node treatment as pain relievers. Some of the contraindications of the drug are caloric under nutrition, liver problems, acute liver failure, several renal impairment and many others. Doxorubicin is a type anthracycline type of chemotherapy that is mainly used alone or with other agents for the treatment of lymphoma cancer (Bisoendial et al. 2017). Patients should not be treated with the medication if they have less than 1500 cells/m3 neutrophil count, severe myocardial insufficiency, recent myocardial infarction, severe hepatic impairment, and severe arrhythmias.
Degenerative changes:
External surface of the lymph vessels have decreased levels of extracellular matrix as well as contractile proteins. Therefore, they become more permeable in cases of aging individuals and this explains that aged lymph vessels are less able to maintain fluid transport. Bacteria can more readily escape from the aged lymph vessels than the younger vessels.
Types of trauma:
Lymph-edema, swelling, infections, blockage as well as cancer are some of the types of trauma that affect the system
Nursing interventions and planning services:
Oncology nurses can serve cancer patients with lymphedema by undertaking activities that promote lymph fluid drainage, proper use of the preventive compression garments, safe practices that avoid trauma at the at risk area, effective skin care and proper identification of the symptoms of lymphedema for rapid intervention.
Respiratory System:
Anatomy:
The respiratory system is mainly a complex biological system mainly is seen to comprise of organs that causes facilitation of the inhalation as well as exhalation of the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the living organisms. Respiration is mainly seen to be handled by lungs. Other parts of this system are the nose as well as the nasal cavity, mouth followed by pharynx and larynx as well as trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, muscles of respiration.
Physiology:
Oxygen from the environment enters into the lungs from where they are diffuses from the alveoli to the blood stream. This blood carries the oxygen to the cells from which this oxygen is used in the production of energy and carbon dioxide is released in the blood (Hogan et al., 2014). This carbon dioxide is then carried to the lungs from which the gas is released to the outside and fresh oxygen is taken in. with the help of this cycle, respiration is carried on and thereby helps in production of energy required for different life processes.
Related system:
The respiratory system is associated with the digestive system. Only after the digestive system helps in release of glucose into the blood stream, they get carried to the cells where the oxygen provided by the respiratory system will work on them to produce energy. Again, the circulatory system is also seen to be associated with the respiratory. The blood is the essential part of the respiratory system and the deoxygenated blood enter in the heart before entering into lungs, the oxygenated blood from lungs again enter into the left atria and then to ventricles before passing to different parts of the body.
Pathophysiology:
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder is one form id disorder that mainly involves emphysema and chronic bronchitis. These mainly occur due to irritants like cigarette smoke, pollution, chemical fumes. This results in obstructed airflow in the lungs (Brandenberger et al. 2015). Chronic bronchitis is mainly the inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes that are mainly seen to carry air to and from the air sacs. Emphysema is a condition in which the alveoli at the end region of the smallest air passages of the lungs are destroyed
Defense and immune response:
The respiratory tract of the system is mainly seen to be comprising of antimicrobial defense system that is mainly a layered defense mechanism. This system is mainly reliable on its components of both innate as well as the adaptive immune systems that help in protection of the lungs as well as the rest of the respiratory tract from any inhaled microorganisms. Besides the effective action of the white blood cells, sticky mucus developed here also helps in entrapping dust as well as pathogens before they even reach the lungs (chong and Pervaiz 2018)
Medication and contraindications:
Beta2 Antagonists are mainly bronchodilators that are usually taken twice to manage conditions like that of the COPD. The contraindications are hypokalemia, hyperglycemia, different cardiovascular effects and allergy to milk proteins. Steroid Pills and Syrups (Oral Steroids) are mainly used to treat cases of severe asthma that mainly helps in reduction of swelling and help other asthma medications to work faster. The contraindications may arise when patients already have untreated tuberculosis, herpes simplex infection in the eyes, hypothyroidism, high cholesterol, muscle problems and many others.
Degenerative changes:
The changes mainly include weakening of the respiratory muscles, declining in the effectiveness of the lung defense mechanisms, decrease in the measurement of lung function including the vital capacity as well as decease in the peak airflow and gas exchange.
Types of trauma:
Broken as well as fractured ribs, pulmonary contusion and many others are some of the types of traumas.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
Besides, pharmacological treatments, the nurses should also help in monitoring of the oxygen saturation and encourage the patient to develop a good lifestyle. The nursing interventions also helped in encouraging healthy weight of the patients, encourage movement, activities, and advice to avoid irritants.
Endocrine system:
Anatomy:
The endocrine system is mainly seen to be a chemical messenger system. This is mainly seen to be comprising of different types of hormones, different groups of glands of an organism that mainly carries the hormones.
Physiology:
The endocrine system is mainly seen to control the systems of the ductless glands which help in the secretion of the hormones with that of the specific organs. Hormones are mainly seen here to act as the messengers that are mainly carried by the blood streams to the different cells of the body (Neuman et al. 2015). The body then interprets the messages and thereby acts on them. The hormones are mainly seen to regulate the growth of the body, its metabolism both in physical and chemic processes of the body and thereby help in sexual development and function.
Related system:
The endocrine system is associated with the circulatory system as the blood mainly helps in carrying the hormones to different organs. The hypothalamus, which is a part of the nervous system, also helps in release of many hormones that help in maturation of different organs. The endocrine system is also helpful for the reproductive system as many hormones help in maturation of the gonads.
Pathophysiology:
Diabetes is a disorder of the endocrine gland that mainly occurs when either the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas cannot produce enough insulin or that the body cells do not accept insulin resulting in increase of blood glucose levels and affects the functioning of body. Another disorder is the deficiency disorder of the somatotropin hormone that mainly results in growth hormone deficiency resulting in a condition called the dwarfism as well as pituitary dwarfism (LaParle et al. 2017).
Defense and immune response:
Researchers are of the opinion that adrenal gland produces cortisol that is important for maintaining immunity. Moreover, they have also stated that a strong immune system need ans active production of natural killer cells and these cells were found to be more active among individuals with optimal levels of the thyroid hormones.
Medication and contraindications:
Radioactive iodine is helpful in the treatment of the hyperthyroidism by mainly helping in the reduction of the hormone production of the thyroid glands. Radioactive iodine and amtithyroid medications may be contraindicated in certain cases like in pregnant women with severe hyperthyroidism, thyroidectomy and others. Flodrocortisone that is actually a corticosteroid hormone mainly helps in the treatment of the Addison’s diseases. The contraindication situstions are in cases of the active tuberculosis, infection caused by fungus, hypothyroidism, diabetes, Cushing’s syndrome and others.
Degenerative changes:
With aging, most of the hormone secretion deceases although there are some hormones that remain unchanged. Not only decrease of hormones but endocrine function also is seen to decline with age as hormone receptors are seen to become less sensitive with age (Vitale et al. 2016).
Types of trauma:
Traumatic brain injury may result in impacting two important key components of the endocrine system which are the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland affecting the endocrine system as a whole
Nursing interventions and planning services:
For disorder like the diabetes, the nurse should educate the treatment about thr proper administration of insulin. Lifestyle management would also be educated to the patients so that the symptoms of diabetes can be controlled. Proper references to dietician also help. To overcome hyperthyroidism, the nurse should educate the patient about anxiety management, educate him about proper diet, and manage ways to overcome fatigue and others.
Urinary system:
Anatomy:
The urinary system mainly involve structures that help in the production as well as transport of the urine to the point of the excretion. Two kidneys are located in the regions between the dorsal body walls as well as in the parietal peritoneum both the sides of the body. The system is mainly seen to comprise of the kidneys, ureters, bladder as well as urethra (Moch et al. 2016).
Physiology:
The urinary system mainly helps in filtering the nitrogenous waste products of the body present in the blood. The nephrons mainly help in filtering the blood in a way by which the waste products are released via urine and the pure blood enters into the body again. A process called ultrafiltration takes place that ensures that the blood that enters back in the body is entirely free from urea. This process also prevents the loss of any nutrients and other necessary metakllic components in to the urine by tubular reabsorption.
Related system:
The blood of the circulatory system is seen to enter in the urinary system where the blood passes through the kidneys and thereby undergo ultra filtration for purification from urea and other waste products. The endocrine system also takes part in action with the excretory system as it controls the functioning. When the levels of the compounds as well as that of the fluids are monitored, the function of the kidneys is also altered to develop the best internal environment doe the cells. More drinking of water results in release of hormones that helps in allowing more urine production 9humphrey et al. 2016).
Pathophysiology:
Kidney failure can be described as one of the acute or chronic conditions when the kidney fails miserably to filter out different forms of waste products from the blood. There may be other conditions like cystitis when the bladder undergoes inflammation due to infection. Loss of bladder control may also take place and this is called bladder incontinence.
Defense and immune response:
A number of molecules and cells are involved in innate immune response when urinary tract infection results. These are antimicrobial peptides, toll-like receptors, chemokines, cytokines, and neutrophils.
Medication and contraindications:
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is a medication of the Urinary tract infection. Oxybutynin is one of the examples of overactive bladder
Degenerative changes:
Bladder control is affected with age
Types of trauma:
Urinary tract infection results from blunt trauma.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
The nurses should take care of the patients during dialysis sessions when kidney failure takes place. Nurses should develop the understanding of the patient about the condition, diagnostic examination, treatment plans and others (Rehfeld et al. 2017).
Immune system:
Anatomy:
This system mainly comprises of the organs and processes by which the body provides resistance to infections and toxins. The organs are seen to comprise of thymus, bone marrow and lymph nodes.
Physiology:
The immune system can differentiate between self-cells and foreign bodies and accordingly develop antibodies or phagocytes and other cells to destroy the foreign bodies (Sompayrac 2015).
Related system:
It works with circulatory system for transportation needs. It also acts with the lymphatic systems for the development of lymphocytes.
Pathophysiology:
AIDS is mainly caused by Human immunodeficiency virus that destroys the ability of the human system to protect the body from other infections. Another is the type 1 diabetes where the immune system attacks those cells in the pancreas that make insulin.
Defense and immune response:
The immune system is itself responsible for protecting the body from different infections.
Medication and contraindications:
Hizentra is used to treat primary immunodeficiency. Hyperprolinemia, hypovolemia, caution if IgA deficiency, caution if renal impairment, caution if concurrent nephrotoxic agent use are some of the contraindications. Imiquimod is mainly seen to stimulate innate as well as acquired immune responses at site of application. The contraindications are reduction in body’s sensitivity to infection, sunburn, sun-sensitive skin and others.
Degenerative changes:
Degenerative changes involve reduction in the production of T cells and B cells in bone marrow as well as in thymus. The function of the mature lymphocytes also decreases in the lymphoid tissues.
Types of trauma:
Viral infections can act as trauma.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
Pharmacological treatment is the most established intervention for immune system.
Digestive system:
Anatomy:
The digestive system comprises of different parts of mouth, teeth, alimentary canal, stomach, large and small intestine, anus and many other parts.
Physiology:
It mainly helps in the breakdown of the food particles with the action of the teeth and the various other salivary juices, different other digestive enzymes and many others. The food particle are broken down into nutrients and are absorbed in the blood vessels and carried to different parts of the body.
Related system:
The circulatory system is associated with it as it mainly carries the nutrients absorbed from digestive system to different parts of the body. The musco-skeletal system is also associated as the movements of the organs help in digestion of the food particles (Williams et al. 2016).
Pathophysiology:
Gastroesophagal reflux is one of the disorders where the acids produced in the stomach backflows in the alimentary canal resulting feelings of heartburn and acid reflux. Chron’s disease is also one type of inflammatory bowel disorder where inflammation occurs in the inner walls of the different parts of the large intestine.
Defense and immune response:
Gut bacteria and the immune system work in association with each other. The former mainly helps in maintaining a balanced system that makes the immune system also balanced. When the gut bacteria become disbalanced the immune system is also affected like resulting in chronic sinusitis, chronic inflammation, food and seasonal allergies and colds and flu (Krasaekoopt et al. 2014).
Medication and contraindications:
Cimetidine helps in preventing ulcers in the stomach, small intestine and treating gastroesophagal reflux disorders. Its contraindications can be seen in any patient who are hypersensitive to the drug. Cinnarizine is an antihistamine drug that is used to control vomiting and contraindicates in patients who are hypersensitive to the drugs. .
Degenerative changes:
The contractions of the muscles working in the digestive system is seen to slow down which cause food to move very slowly through the muscles of the long intestine causing constipation. Tooth decay and fall of teeth are also seen making biting and chewing difficult.
Types of trauma:
Ongoing stress and posttraumatic stress create issues in digestion. These result in bloating, mood swings, energy crashes, food sensitivities and many others.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
Nurses should always educate patients about having balanced diet at the right time in order to prevent complicacies in digestion and suffer from ill health. Not only right time, the right amount and quality of food is important to gain high amount of nutrients in order to be fit, healthy and active and not to suffer from non-communicable diseases due to vitamin and mineral deficiencies (Keum et al. 2016).
Reproductive system:
Anatomy:
This system is mainly seen to comprise of the system of sex organs within an organism. Here the organs work together to reproduce new lives on the earth and for multiplication of species.
Physiology:
The male reproductive system helps in the production of sperms that are haploid cells. These sperms help in fertilization of the ovum or the eggs that are haploid cells of the females. These unite to form diploid cells that grow in fetus.
Related system:
Several systems like the endocrine system is mainly helpful in growth of the reproductive organs and its maturation which in turn helps in reproduction effectively. Researchers also say that reproductive system also affect the development of the nervous system.
Pathophysiology:
Ectopic pregnancy can take place when the fertilized ovum is implanted in any other tissue rather than being implanted on the uterine wall. Sometimes cancer may be diagnosed in prostate making the individual suffer from prostate cancer 9Maggi et al. 2016).
Defense and immune response:
Infection as well as inflammation may result in decrease in androgen and sperm production reduction. Auto immune reaction may cause male factor infertility.
Medication and contraindications:
Estrace is used to treat symptoms of menopause that would include hot flashes as well as vaginal dryness. The contraindications are seen in cases of undiagnosed abnormal genital bleeding, known as well as suspected estrogen dependent neoplasia, active vein thrombosis and many others. Cetrorelix mainly helps in fertility treatments. It has contraindications such as Hypersensitivity to cetrorelix acetate, extrinsic peptide hormones or mannitol, suspected or known pregnancy, renal impairments as well as hypersensitivity to GNRH (Brahmani et al. 2015).
Degenerative changes:
Menopause occurs in females ensuring stopping of the menstrual cycle. Males go through andropause but much later in life.
Types of trauma:
Genital trauma, gynecologic trauma and others are some of the traumas.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
The patients should be taught about the recommended guidelines about the different reproductive screening tests. The nurses should also teach the pre and post test care for the diagnostic testing for the reproductive system
Cells and systems:
Cells are the structural as well as functional unit of life and are called the building blocks of life. Cells are of two types. Plant cell and animal cells are the two types. Cells have cytoplasm which are bounded by membranes and mainly comprises of different organelles (Sweeney et al. 2015).
Tissues:
Tissue is the cellular organization where similar cells group together to perform specific functions. Several tissues group together to form different organs.
Physiology:
The cell has an important part called the nucleus that mainly helps in controlling the different actions that the cells take. This mainly contains the DNA that is mainly the hereditary units for the next generation (Shin et al. 2017). Moreover, mitochondria are an organelle that helps in energy storage and takes part in respiration. There is lysosomes that helps in destruction of damaged cells. The goldi body helps in secretory activities.
Related system:
Cells are the basic units and therefore form the foundations of all the organs. Therefore, it is a part of all systems.
Pathophysiology:
Alzheimer’s diseases are seen to affect the neurons that are the cells of the nervous system. Cancer mainly occurs due to mutation in the cells. Sickle cell anemia is mainly caused by defects in cells like red blood cells (Ruggieri et al. 2015).
Defense and immune response:
Different cells like natural killer cells, mast cells, T cells and b cells take part in the immune response and helps in protecting the body from different infections.
Medication and contraindications:
Droxia is used in the treatment of sickle cell anemia that reduces the frequency of the painful crises and helps in reduction of the need of blood transfusions. It is contraindicated in patients who are hypersensitive to the drug. Afnitor is another drug that is seen to interfered with cancer cells and reduce their spread in the body and has contraindications like sever infection cases, diabetes, excessive fat in blood, liver problems and others.
Degenerative changes:
Cells become larger and are unable to divide. There are increase in pigments and fatty substances. Many of them lose their ability for functioning normally (Thota and Bhandari 2015).
Types of trauma:
Different types of traumas are atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, dysplasia, metaplasia, anoxia, necrosis and others.
Nursing interventions and planning services:
Proper care and education to patients with different cellular disorders would ensure them with quality lives
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