Introduction To Materials Science: Health And Safety Considerations In Construction Sites

Task 1

Task 1

Many at times we are involved in or come across construction works and bear testimony to amazing structures and beautiful scenery that results, thanks to a well-organized, planned, reviewed, executed and controlled processes involved. However, there are instances where there are failures in construction works either on the building itself/ site location or loss of life and injury of the personnel involved or both. Specifically, such instances result in sites where health and safety procedures, processes or considerations are not adequately emphasized, organized, planned, monitored and reviewed (Hughes & Ferret, 2016). Based on this information, this section focuses to offer a detailed proposal and suggestion to health and safety in construction while considering the provision of suitable site access and storage locations for the various materials needed for the construction and those materials requiring disposal from a site.

The site will be served by the main road and a link road from the side as indicated on the sketch plan of the site. Demolition of old structure will be done before the inception of construction and demolition materials disposed of.  Blocks, bricks and concrete portion from demolition will be used to compact and level the site and as a fill material in the foundation of the new building. Glass and plastic wastes from demolition will be stored at storage B (for demolition waste) and be released to the county waste disposal unit for safe disposal within two weeks from the time of demolition.  Wood from demolition will be used to supplement other wood/ timber supply for the erection of the building construction storage sites B. generated soil from demolition shall be cut away from the site. The site plan is as shown in figure 1.

MAIN BUILDING UNDER CONSTRUCTION

Storage A Save Time On Research and Writing Hire a Pro to Write You a 100% Plagiarism-Free Paper. Get My Paper Site office Storage    B

Preparation of the site will entail clearance of the site, geotechnical report, grading, excavation, and compaction. Investigation and assessment on surface and subsurface conditions shall be conducted thoroughly. The assessment is relevant since it helps determine present and installation of ground services based on recommendations on the site geotechnical report. Excavations volume will be determined and suitable drainage, structural elevation be conducted with utmost precision as per the designs.

Subsequent to accomplishing and deciphering test results, sort of establishment suitable for the site, settlements and related proposals, liquefaction potential outcomes, incline solidness, groundwater level, soil bearing limit, exhuming related perils, soil quality, soil grouping, and numerous more data are given in the geotechnical reports.

Demolition and Site Preparation

After the design of the structure is set precisely, the uncovering work starts and the soil is evacuated to a required profundity in which the establishment of the structure is set.

There are different kinds of hardware/ equipment used to exhume and transport soil at task site. The choice of the sort of apparatus utilized for exhuming depends on the soil kind, to what extent is the separation the soil should be transported, soil site capacity to convey load, and site openness.

For example, impacting, penetrating, and apparatus like stones, excavator, scoops, and scooper are included to exhume and transported impacted and bored materials when rocks are available at the site. Grading at a built site is extremely urgent to drive water far from the structure. Global Building Code (IBC 2009), gives a fundamental proposal to make legitimate grading. The Code expresses that review slant ought to be no less than one unit vertical to twenty units even as such 5% at a separation of 3m estimated opposite from the divider confront.

In the event that a flat separation of 3 m isn’t accessible because of physical frustrates, at that point, different alternatives should be utilized, for example, swales and impenetrable surface for which minimum slant ought to be 2% if is situated inside the breaking point of 3m. The IBC code allows the least slant of one unit flat to forty-eight-unit vertical under specific conditions.

On the off chance that the building site isn’t level, at that point, reasonable slicing and rounding should be completed and they both cut and fill volume is directed by the most minimal level position of the structure. The soil underneath establishment at site development must be compacted to the required degree which according to IBC Code is 90% of the greatest dry thickness. Compaction of soil layers which bolster loads is an absolute necessity since it diminishes settlement and thus forestalls undesired occurrences.

Packing, rolling, and vibration is kinds of burdens utilized to minimize soil layers. There are a few machines utilized for compaction at the building site, for example, smooth wheel roller, sheep foot roller, elastic tire, crawler, and packing plate compactor. Not exclusively does the compaction of soil enhance shear quality yet, in addition, it decreases soil porousness and compressibility (Hughes & Ferret, 2016).

Materials needed during early phases on construction and construction of the main structure, hazards they present and measures to reduce the risks to the people working on the site are as tabulated below:

Material	Hazard	Measures to reduce risks
Cement	Skin problems such as dermatitis	Workers to wear protective gloves, clothing
Packaging and timber offcuts	Flammable- can easily cause a fire	Should be cleared away regularly to reduce fire risks
Chemicals and solvents	Accidental ignition	Stored away unless while being used
Flammable paints and glues	Suffocation, fire risks	Increase ventilation standards
Timber	Physical injury	Carefully arranged and away from walkways, stairways, paths
Adhesives	Fire risk	Regularly cleared away if not used and away from places where accidental ignition is probable Use water-based or low solvent adhesives
Soft furnishings	Fire risk	Regularly cleared away if not used and away from places where accidental ignition is probable
Trailing cables	Tripping/ physical injury	Carefully placed and marked for awareness
Guardrails and toe boards	Edge injuries or vulnerability	Provide edge protection
Bricks or concrete	Side-on loading effects Fall accidents and injuries	Making steps facing the working actor and not contrary Support steps from tipping over or tying to a suitable point
Barriers or covers	Fall accidents due to accidental failures	Use nets to mitigate the consequences should a fall occur
Lifting materials to the roof	Material wastage and loses, fall accidents, poor workmanship	Provide safe access to the roof A safe way of lifting materials to the roof Maximum load to be carried up a ladder to be 10 kg
Hazardous materials e.g. acids, lead paint	Contamination	Proper removal and safe disposal before demolition. Disposable overalls, full-face respirators, ventilated enclosures
Solvent-based paints and materials	The risk of exposure to skin and contamination	Do not apply by spraying Use a roller with a splash guard Apply by brush

Site Access and Storage Locations

Task 2

Environmental impacts of cement

Over time, there has been justified concerns on use of sustainable, safe, cheaper, biodegradable etc. forms of materials in constructions mainly to check on wastes resulting from their use as well as environmental impacts, costs, reliability, sustainability etc. such alternatives should never be ignored especially in construction so as to produce a sustainable fit and efficient structure. For instance, cement as a construction material has been significantly modified and varied so as to improve its use as well as efficiency. This section aims to explore the arguments for and against the use of cement based on environmental and sustainability viewpoint and a comparison of its form possible used 50 years ago in construction works.

• Making cement outcomes in large amounts of CO2 yield.  Cement creation is the third positioning maker of anthropogenic (man-made) CO2 on the planet after transport and vitality age. 4 – 5% of the overall aggregate of CO2 emanations is caused by cement production. CO2 is delivered at two amid concrete generation: the first is as a result of consumption of non-renewable energy sources, principally coal, to create the warmth important to drive the bond making process (Construction: health and safety, 2009). The second from the warm decay of calcium carbonate during the time spent creating bond clinker.

CaCO3 (limestone) + warm – > CaO (lime) + CO2

Production of one ton of bond results in 780 kg of CO2.Of the aggregate CO2 yield, 30% gets from the utilization of vitality and 70% outcomes from decarbonation. Important to acknowledge is that in spite of the fact that 5% of the overall age of CO2 is because of bond creation, that level of yield additionally mirrors the exceptional and all-inclusive significance of cement all through the development business. A chart below summaries the environmental impacts of cement.

Figure showing the environmental impact of cement.

Figure showing GHG emission by industry.

Furthermore, it has been noted that cement extraction and processing results in landscape degradation, loss of agricultural land, loss of aesthetic value and beauty of environment causing visual impacts, and noise, pollution, and energy consumption during transportation and manufacturing processes.

Environmental impacts of concrete (extraction point)

Environmental impacts of concrete (Land degradation)

Environmental impacts of concrete (pollution hazards-air, land etc.)

Sustainability of cement

Cement is the dynamic constituent of solid which will assume an undeniably vital job in future CO2 moderation, through upgrades in vitality proficient building techniques. A real program of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development; the Cement Sustainability Initiative (CSI) has been concentrating on comprehension, overseeing and limiting the effects of concrete creation for more than 10 years ( Clark, 2010). This is a worldwide exertion by 18 of the world’s driving bond makers who speak to around 30% of the world’s concrete generation.

With key atmosphere arrangements occurring this December at the COP15 talks in Copenhagen, crafted by the CSI amid 2009 has been thought around conveying a few noteworthy reports; concentrating especially on the manageable eventual fate of bond. A standout amongst the most essential ventures attempted so far by the CSI is the advancement of a complete financial and arrangement displaying program; intended to analyze the possibility of a Sectoral Approach to ozone-depleting substance alleviation (Clark, 2010). The discoveries, distributed in May, feature four potential strategies that can add to decrease; enhancements in vitality effectiveness, expanded utilization of elective fills, extra mixing and carbon catch, and capacity. The displaying likewise demonstrates that a huge decrease in discharges could be accomplished by receiving a sectoral approach in the cement business; when contrasted with the base case.

Site Grading and Compaction

A great part of the information required to build up the model was drawn from another vital task attempted by the CSI – Getting the Numbers Right (GNR). The GNR framework is a division-wide worldwide data database that gives precise, checked information on the bond business’ CO2 emanations and vitality execution. Notwithstanding CSI individuals, CEMBUREAU, the European Cement Association, gathers data from non-CSI concrete plants in Europe, guaranteeing almost total inclusion of all bond establishments there. The database is autonomously overseen by Pricewaterhouse Coopers (PwC), who give information security to oversee antitrust and classification concerns. GNR demonstrates that a successful estimating, revealing and confirmation (MRV) framework can be produced and overseen by an industry (Issa, 2014). Besides, dependable and a la mode outflows information is basic for emanations benchmark-setting in an area like a bond.

The work attempted on sectoral approach displaying, building up the GNR database and different ventures, – including a noteworthy new cover reusing cement, in which the CSI calls for moves towards zero landfill – fill in as proof that the bond business is a main division as far as its comprehension of potential alleviation and adjustment measures to battle environmental change.

With great portrayal from cement makers in Europe, North and South America, the CSI is presently effectively reassuring commitment and association from creating nations (Issa, 2014). The activity as of now considers Indian cement makers as a part of its individuals and a few partner discussions have been held with Chinese concrete makers, controllers, and NGOs. The desire is to incorporate Chinese organizations among the enrollment soon.

Comparison of materials that might be used for the structure 50 years ago with what might be used today are as in the tabulation as follows;

A material used 50 years ago	Material used today
Flint: In engineering, flush work is the beautifying blend on a similar level plane of rock and ashlar stone. On the off chance that the stone tasks from a level rock divider indicated that the stone stands “pleased” instead of being “flush” to the divider. Flint utility was for beautifying purposes where it was accessible however at times entire structures were constructed utilizing rock.	Obsidian: These can be made utilizing the smelter in indistinguishable design from device parts. The honing pack example can be discovered upper left on the stencils set, at that point make the shape. There are different evaluations of honing unit for the different materials accessible in the amusement (e.g. Press, Steel, Knights line, and Obsidian). To apply a honing unit to an instrument, put the device, amidst a Tool Forge and the honing pack and a bit of stone in any of the vacant spaces around it. This could be mine you can overhaul or minimization your instrument Mining Level by putting the material that has the Mining Level higher than your device and the other way around.
Soil and turf: In some northern districts the rooftops so as to maintain stickiness. Application of soil layer under a layer of turf at the house top was done to work the water out,. Houses and different structures made that way would nearly mix with whatever remains of the view making them difficult to see from separation.	Tiles: Roof tiles are ‘hung’ from the framework of a roof by fixing them with nails. The tiles are usually hung in parallel rows, with each row overlapping the row below it to exclude rainwater and to cover the nails that hold the row below. There are also roof tiles for special positions, particularly where the planes of the several pitches meet. appearance of brick, but avoided the brick taxes of the 18th century
Secondary materials Iron Copper and Lead: Every one of the three of these metals is utilized somehow in medieval engineering. From the assembling of nails utilized through relatively every building compose to copper and lead being utilized for channels and for the development of churches, (seepage, arches sheathing and so forth) which required materials skilled to stand the trial of time. Press poles and are additionally utilized for included basic trustworthiness in numerous military and religious structures.	Steel and iron: Steel is a compound of iron and carbon and different components. In view of its high elasticity and ease, it is a noteworthy part utilized in structures, foundation, apparatuses, ships, autos, machines, apparatuses, and weapons. Press is the base metal of steel. Press can go up against two crystalline structures (allotropic structures), body-focused cubic and confront focused cubic, contingent upon its temperature. In the body-focused cubic plan, there is an iron particle in the middle and eight iotas at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the face-focused cubic, there is one molecule at the focal point of every one of the six essences of the cubic unit cell and eight molecules at its vertices.
Lime Mortar: Lime mortar or mortar was made by removing the stone from a limestone quarry (lime works) which was then prepared into a lime furnace with the end goal to be rendered into a pliable frame (brisk lime). This enabled Lime to be utilized for building, rendering, putting and lime washing building. Lime control was additionally utilized as mortar in the middle of stone pieces which gave great protection to the building. In areas that Limestone couldn’t be discovered, clam shells were utilized in ovens with the end goal to deliver a fundamentally the same as material.	Cement mortar: Mortar is a useful glue used to tie building squares, for example, stones, blocks, and solid brickwork units together, fill and seal the unpredictable holes among them, and once in a while include enriching hues or examples in workmanship dividers. In its broadest sense mortar incorporates pitch, black-top, and delicate mud or dirt, for example, utilized between mud blocks. Mortar originates from Latin mortarium significance smashed. Bond mortar turns out to be hard when it fixes, bringing about an inflexible total structure; anyway, the mortar is expected to be weaker than the building squares and the conciliatory component in the brickwork, in light of the fact that the mortar is less demanding and more affordable to repair than the building squares. Mortars are ordinarily produced using a blend of sand, a folio, and water. The most widely recognized folio since the mid-twentieth century is Portland bond however the antiquated fastener lime mortar is as yet utilized in some new development. Lime and gypsum as mortar of Paris are utilized especially in the repair and repointing of structures and structures since it is critical the repair materials are like the first materials. The sort and proportion of the repair mortar are controlled by a mortar examination.
Clay and brick: clay was anciently used as an important part of daub and in pottery until the techniques of making fire bricks from burnet clay which gave a more hard structure. Bricks developed from Italian peninsula from roman times and eventually being used in England as a construction material in construction of walls and permanent dwellings.	Stone and concrete:. Stonework is, for the most part, an exceptionally tough type of development. Be that as it may, the materials utilized, the nature of the mortar and workmanship, and the example in which the units are amassed can considerably influence the toughness of the general brickwork development.
Logs and lumber: Wood was an essential piece of the greater part of the structures amid the medieval times. Basically, the greater part of the confining of a house and in addition the rooftop structure was made of wood. In England, Oak was utilized broadly because of its solid protection from moist climate. Despite the fact that a vital component of numerous structures, exclusively wooden houses were not all that regularly utilized. Wood was however utilized in military structures previously the presentation of the Norman stone protections. In reality, a large number of the trespassers of England conveyed wooden cautious structures prepared for gathering (Like IKEA level pressed yet somewhere in the range of hundred years prior). Wood was likewise utilized for the development of essential framework like scaffolds	Timber and wood: It furnishes extraordinary advantages when joined with sharp arranging, high exactness and very much observed development and brilliant usage. The utilization of timber outlines the world over is extremely prominent. There is no distinction when we come to utilizing timber in off-site development of homes. Timber outline homes are frequently thought of as a lightweight type of development, yet don’t be deceived. It is a uniquely crafted structure that is amazingly solid and sturdy. There are numerous focal points to timber outline development, however, its best-known quality is its ecological perfection. When utilizing timber to work off-site development of new homes, there is a high level of adaptability. Transportation costs are brought down because of the way that timber is lightweight. The segments in a timber outline weigh less and can be utilized on brownfield destinations or locales with troublesome land conditions.

Task 3

1. Advantages of steel beams and columns

Advantages of Structural Steel Structures

1. Steel is elastic. Steel possesses high quality to weight proportion which implies steel has high quality per unit mass. With no much regard to how expansive the general structure is, its segments will be little and lightweight, in contrast to other building materials.
2. It can be effortlessly manufactured and delivered greatly. Steel areas can be created off-site and afterward amassed nearby. This spares time and builds the effectiveness of the general development process.
3. Auxiliary steel is exceptionally adaptable and malleable hence a variety of shapes is practical in design.
4. Basic steel is moderately shoddy contrasted with other building materials.
5. It is extremely strong. Auxiliary steel structures can withstand outer weights, for example, quakes, tempests, and violent winds. A well-fabricated steel structure can last up to 30 years whenever looked after well.

Disadvantages of Structural Steel Structures

1. Steel is a composite of iron, this renders steel vulnerable to consumption. This issue fail to unravel to some degree utilizing against corrosion applications.
2. It has high upkeep expenses as it must be painted so as to safeguard it from corrosion.
3. Extensive insulating costs is requisite given that steel isn’t flame resistant since it loses its properties at high temperatures.
4. Clasping is a concern when it comes to steel structures. Elongation in length of steel segment builds the odds of clasping likewise increments.
5. High expansion rate of steel by evolving temperatures which could be adverse to the general structure.
6. An alternative conventional material in part (a) for steel would be wrought iron.

Wrought/Fashioned Iron truly signifies ‘worked press’, which alludes to the technique for assembling the metal by working (beating) over and over under a sled it is a similar procedure that steel specialists have utilized for a long time whether it be making swords or steed shoes. Crafted by the metal forger accordingly ended up known as ‘Created Ironwork’, a name that has persevered for the fine art despite the fact that the metal being used may not be fashioned iron (Fan, 2011).

Fashioned Iron’s unrivaled weathering properties that are generally outstanding. Wrought iron is known for its toughness and will last a huge number of years, its special properties enable it to oppose corrosion. Simply take a gander at the measure of Wrought iron in legacy destinations and structures that are more than 300 years of age Mild steel can last up to 60 years with reasonable stirring.

Materials Needed during Early Phases of Construction

Wrought Iron is milder to fashion, as it is serviceable at a higher warmth than gentle steel making it progressively ‘moldable’ under the mallet (Fan, 2011). Astonishing lavish shapes can be controlled into the metal to make staggering entryway plans with no obvious welds.

Today the regular material adopted is mild steel which is a more affordable, promptly accessible and requires a lower ability level to deliver entryways than fashioned iron. Use of Wrought Iron and steel-for by far most of the private homes mild steel is most reasonable item basically on weight and cost (Fan, 2011). A significant match of created press entryways could be as much as 10 times the expense of its mild steel partners. It is additionally critical to think about that “created press” beams and columns are commonly heavier and substantial entryway robotization will be required.

Hence, wrought iron is far more expensive and manufacture and heavier (about ten times more than steel) and can be mass produced compared to steel. Use of wrought therefore would demand more extractions, more manufacturing, and possible collapse and failure of building due to excessive and unsustainable weights hence impacting soil foundation failure envelopes, land degradation at mines as well as high pollution at the manufacturing plants when its use is intensified.

1. Applicable standards

The material adopted would be used to design beam and columns able to support tension within members of the structures as well as measures on compression, deflections of members. The wrought would be modified in thickness to sustain tension and compression in the members hence applying ultimate limit state design principles.

1. Testing procedure to determine if the material would support the structure

Test for tensile strength procedure

1. Measure the distance across and utilize the gage stamp punch apparatus to check a 2-inch gauge length on every example (2 sets of oppositely contradicted imprints). [The punch marks are utilized to find the extensometer and to gauge the lengthening after the extensometer has been removed.]
2. Introduce the example in the testing machine (bottom connection first; take care not to unscrew the top bracket). Utilize the hand wrench to apply an underlying tractable load to the test sample
3. Mount the extensometer on the example, Attach the supporting wire from the extensometer to the highest point of the test frame support. Set the extensometer dial to zero.
4. Set the Range Indicator to 24,000 lbs.; set, the machine stack marker and restrict pointer to zero.
5. Have the technician check set-up before continuing.
6. Press the START button.

1. Apply load to the sample at a moderate rate utilizing the LOAD and UNLOAD hand wheels. Record load and elongation for consistent augmentations of lengthening.
2. At the yield point, expel the extensometer. Starting here, record the elongation between gauge marks utilizing the dividers and scale. (Increment the rate of loading somewhat.)
3. At ultimate strength, quit recording the elongation strain.
4. Keep stacking sample to break as a wellbeing safety measure, stand far from the stacking zone.
5. Expel the sample from the machine.
6. Measure and record the diameter of the sample at the breakpoint also knowns as a point of fracture.  
7. How standard ensures a comparison of results in different parts of the world

Through standard procedures employed at tests and calibration of equipment so as to ensure tests are conducted at specific and optimum conditions hence minimizing any variations that would result hence various test results can, therefore, be fairly compared regardless of the location of the test.

1. Euler equation for the bucking of a column under vertical load.

Maximum vertical load/critical load=

Assumed factor of safety =1.

Figure on Young’s modulus for structural steel     

Task 4

1. Outside air intakes ASHRAE standard 62 recommends the minimum amount of outside air for mixing with conditioned air to maintain good indoor air quality based on types of use and occupancy.1 Therefore, fresh air intakes must be located during design to prevent the introduction of pollutants into the building’s air supply.
2. Use double panel windows and only vinyl frames and consider tinting of windows while maintaining the blinds open hence minimize energy loss from the building.
3. Improved insulation through weather stripping and insulation techniques
4. Use compact fluorescent bulbs for illumination and lighting in the building.
5. Installation of energy efficient appliances.

Schedule energy efficiency audit for the building regularly.

1. Consider designs using solar panels for own electricity.    
2. The total heat load by the heat pump   

The measure of performance of a heat pump is also expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance and it is defined as  Therefore, the power input to the heat pump is    

The power input to the heat pump,  

1. 80,000 KJ/h = 2.22 KW COP = Th/(Th-Tc) = 297 k/(297 k-268 k) = 10.24 COP = Qh/W —> W = Qh/COP W = 2.22 KW/10.24 = 2.17 KW which should be equal to the power needed to operate the pump.

1. The sound in the room would reverberate will significantly be reduced if the hall contains a maximum audience of 200 as more reflections will occur upon hitting surface due to increased capacitation of the hall.

Reference

Andamon, M.M., 2010. Building climatology and thermal comfort: thermal environments and occupant (comfort) responses in Philippine office buildings.

Clark, W.W., 2010. Sustainable communities design handbook: green engineering, architecture, and technology. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Construction: health and safety, 2009. Kingston upon the Thames: Wolters Kluwer Ltd.

Fan, J., 2011. Multiscale analysis of deformation and failure of materials. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley.

Hughes, P. and Ferrett, E., 2016. Introduction to health and safety in construction: for the NEBOSH national certificate in construction health and safety. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

Issa, R. and Flood, I., 2014. Computing in civil and building engineering: proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Computing in Civil and Building Engineering: June 23-25, 2014, Orlando, Florida. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.