It remains possible and sometimes more acceptable to gain on the job training, particularly when prepared to work for free. Alternatively, another route into journalism is by using contacts. Whilst deemed by some as unethical, many employers view this as the cheapest means of filling vacancies that are already over subscribed. It also avoids the recruitment costs. Recruitment of journalists is very much subject to the particular and possibly idiosyncratic needs and practices of individual employers. These conditions mean that entry into journalism is haphazard and usually more difficult for ethnic groups.
This is an issue the industry has addressed to some extent. The NUJ black group and the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) began looking at the issue of black under-representation in white media in the early eighties. The study found that black and Asian people, whether they had recognised journalism training or not, experienced for prejudice when they tried to get jobs than when they tried getting training. The majority of respondents to the study wanted to see the implementation of equal opportunities policies backed by law.
This remains an on-going problem for the industry and something that needs to be more rigorously monitored and addressed. A key pre-requisite of an established profession is a code of conduct. In the broadest sense, this should set lay out key rights and wrongs. Lawyers, doctors and teachers, all follow a set of ethics – moral principles or codes. In journalistic terms, this is sometimes seen as a contradiction in terms. Journalists are very often accused of being totally unethical and many accept the term ‘never believe what you read in the paper’.
Good journalism in essence should arguably be described as ‘news that has been gathered in a morally justifiably manner, topical, truthful, factually based information which is of interest to the reader/viewer and that is published in a timely and accurate way to a mass audience’. However, in an ever-increasing capitalist media industry, this type of journalism could be argued to be in decline. There is a tension between ethics and market forces. Most western journalists are working in a market place in some way or other. A key motivating factor is the need to continually increase circulation or ratings.
This may tempt a journalist to use a story that moralistically, they may not have usually done so. However, journalists are supposed to follow a code of conduct. Both print and broadcast media have a set of regulations to follow and abide. Nigel G. E. Harris commented – One of the most noteworthy features of codes for journalists is just how wide is the range of countries in which they have been adopted. They are found not just in Western Europe and North America, but in countries as diverse as Egypt, South Korea, Jamaica, Mali and Venezuela. (Harris, 1992)
The first codes were drafted in America in the early part of the twentieth century. Britain and Europe followed in the 1920s and 30s. The British National Union of Journalists code was first suggested in 1935 and finally launched in 1936. Since that time, the code of conduct has become very much more detailed and definitive. Broadcasting in the UK is covered by three bodies – the Independent Television Commission (ITC), deals with broadcasting licences and lays down guidelines for commercial broadcasters. The Broadcasting Standards Council (BSC) adjudicates on matters of taste and decency.
It is the Broadcasting Complaints Commission that focuses on ethical issues in journalism. The codes were introduced for two main reasons. Firstly, to provide journalists themselves with ethical guidance. Secondly, to reassure the public that the industry has standards of practice that those in the field must follow, or face discipline. In Britain the Press Council was set up to establish an ethical framework for those in the print media to follow. However, the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) replaced this in 1991. Funded by newspaper proprietors, it is a self-regulating body, with a simple code of conduct.
Following the death of Princess of Diana, resulting arguably from unnecessary press intrusion, the code was re-written with a greater emphasis on issues surrounding privacy, particularly for the protection of children in the public eye. Members of the PCC include proprietors, editors, practitioners and lay people who enforce the code of conduct by condemning bad practice. In some cases a penalty is levelled against the offender, usually in the form of a public apology printed in the offending publication and a financial payment.
In both UK broadcast and print journalism there are strict laws covering defamation and contempt of court. Reporting a crime whilst court proceedings are active is considered a serious offence, as everyone is deemed innocent until proven guilty. Similarly, defaming a person/organisation with the aim of deliberately causing offence is also a felon and can lead to criminal proceedings. So at this point, journalism arguably conforms to fundamental principles constituting a ‘profession’. Another interesting area to consider is the role of power within a particular industry.
Johnson (1972) was among the first to examine the concept of power for the analysis of occupations. His work showed that it was possible to distinguish between occupations with reference to the amount of control they were able to exercise over their own activities and they ways in which they respond to attempts by others to control them. Johnson moved away from the traditional description of occupational categorisation towards the active processes engaged in by members of an occupation in securing their social status.
This approach is particularly insightful as it offers us ways of thinking about media occupations with reference to both internal and external constraints. Applying this research to journalism demonstrates that in this context it potentially can be described as a profession. Journalists wield great power in their role as ‘gatekeepers’ (White, 1950), exercising their own highly subjective and idiosyncratic judgements to filter news agency material. On the whole the research into media production is understood to be one of the most neglected areas of communications research.
This could in part explain some of the misunderstandings both internally and externally within the field of journalism. In general, people involved in highly competitive industries or those that feel vulnerable to outside criticism are typically reluctant to allow researchers to examine their activities. The more traditional research methods (interviews and questionnaire surveys) imposing limitations on any such analysis. The first study into media production has often been cited as Rosten’s (1937) survey of Washington newspaper correspondents.
Other notable work came from White’s (1950) account of the role of the newspaper wire editor and Breed’s (1955) analysis of the socialisation and control of opinions; and the way their activities fitted into a cycle of production. All three studies have had a significant impact/influence on media content. Since the early research into media production, two approaches have developed. One strand looks specifically at the work of media personnel primarily as members of media organisations.
Drawing on systems and organisation theory, this work focused on the functionality of routinization – fixed patterns of working involving a clear division of labour and well-defined roles – for achieving organisational goals, often using the accounts of individuals as reported through structured interviews to come to a more complete understanding of media work. (Dickinson, 1996). The second strand of research focused on a method pioneered by the Chicago School of Sociology, simply ‘hanging round a workplace to find out what is going on’ (Glaser and Strauss, 1965, p.
288). Full-scale ethnographic studies of media organisations are rare. Participant observation is time-consuming and difficult to finance and with the added reluctance from media personnel there are few opportunities for this kind of all-encompassing study. However, there have been notable studies in a wide range of media organisations, ranging from book publishing to the popular music industry. The breadth and detail of media production/professional research is nothing like that of media content or media audiences, but it is not as lacking as some would maintain.
As Boyd-Barrett (1995) highlighted, there has been a resurgence of interest in the individual media worker as a source of insight into not only the journalistic organisational structures and processes, but also the broader context of economic, political, legal and ideological frameworks and processes. In conclusion, journalism has evolved considerably over the last few decades. As an industry it is influential in all areas of our lives from dictating the news we discuss to affecting the clothes we choose. Traditionally, journalism has been perceived as a predominantly vocational occupation.
The ‘hacks’ of Fleet Street began at 16 making the tea and learnt their skills ‘on the job’. However this limited view of journalism has and continues to alter. More journalists than ever have some form of higher education, many with specific professionally accredited qualifications. Fundamentally, journalism adheres to the attributes that distinguish a profession from another occupation. Potential journalists are encouraged to gain specific, high-level educational qualifications, particularly as competition within the industry increases.
There are several professional bodies, which lay down codes of conduct. On the whole, journalists enjoy a relatively privileged position in the hierarchy of occupations. Despite conforming to these principles in some way or other, journalism still remains quite different to more conventional professions such as law, medicine and education. It is still possible to become a journalist with very basic qualifications and simply learn when doing the job. Whilst journalism is an important, impactful and potentially powerful career, perhaps one of the key defining factors is accreditation.
In the legal, medical and teaching professions, professional accreditation is necessary before you are able to practice within the specific sphere. Journalism remains an anomaly at this level. Despite being encouraged to gain professional accreditation, it is not obligatory. Bodies such as the Chartered Institute of Chartered Accountants in contrast ensure that individual members enjoy ‘chartered’ status. Never the less, I would still argue that journalism is a profession. Journalists are considered relative experts – with a certain level of written skill and accomplishment.
The majority of journalists act in a professional manner, demonstrating ethical and moral commitment. This is an area where journalism often suffers, with many assuming all journalists follow the tabloid mould, scandalous, morally reprehensible and unethical. However, this type of journalist and indeed journalism is in the minority. If we consider power as an occupational differentiator, journalists exercise significant control over their own activities. Subjects maybe commissioned, but journalists are often given free reign on what they write on a certain subject (subject to editing).
Such freedom isn’t enjoyed within many other professions. Finally, it is important to point out, that journalism as an industry in the UK has changed significantly and will continue to do so. If we look to the USA, journalism is highly regarded as a profession and as such there are a huge selection of well-respected degree-level courses on offer. Perhaps public perception of journalism needs to change before it can become a more widely acknowledged and ‘understood’ profession.
On an academic level, there remains friction between traditional journalists and respected academics, resulting in limited cohesion between the two. On a public level, journalists are often viewed negatively as a result of bad journalism and journalistic practices. MA in Mass Communications Option 1 Is journalism a profession? What arguments and evidence would you put forth to support or deny any claim that journalism has to being a profession?
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