Learning is the method of acquisition or gathering of skills or knowledge, which can be through various means, like through the process of studying, by personal experiences or being taught. The learning process influences the decisions, attitude, actions and opinion of the people. It is used in the field of Educational Psychology.
One of the familiar and common way in which people learn, from childhood, is by the process of observation. Learning by the process of observation involves watching, following, copying and noting the behavior of others in a particular situation.
A basic example can be taken, that people learn by the process of observation, is ‘talking’ or even ‘walking’. The infants learn to talk by imitating the elders. Observational learning often happens naturally, and is often not realized by the people (Zentall, 2012).
Another type of learning, which is studied by the Educational Psychologists, is through conditioning. Conditioning can be of two types, namely, ‘Operant Conditioning’ and ‘Classical Conditioning’ (Henton & Iversen, 2012). Learning through Classical conditioning involves association of a particular phenomena or thing pertaining to the environment, and forecasting what would happen after that. The Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov, explained classical conditioning.
Behaviors of dogs were observed. The dogs were given food, after ringing the bell. In due course, the dogs were accustomed to this. Eventually, they started associating food-delivery with the sound of the bell. This was evidenced as the dogs would start salivating with anticipation, even when there would not be any smell or sight of food. It has been regarded that this style of learning or making association would be similar in the case of dogs as well as humans (Ziegler et al., 2012).
Whereas, in case of Operant conditioning, behavior is reinforced with either a punishment or a reward. The likelihood of a particular behavior increases if it is followed by a reward. Similarly, the likelihood of a particular behavior decreases if it is followed by a punishment.
This can be illustrated by an example: like if a particular teacher responds in a positive manner if many questions are asked, then the students will be encouraged to ask questions. In case the teacher becomes irritated when questions are being asked, then the students would be discouraged to ask questions. Social punishments teach the students to not ask questions to that particular teacher.
The conceptual framework to describe, how the knowledge is processed, retained and absorbed during the course of learning is known as Learning Theories. They are a set of principles used for the purpose of explaining how the knowledge is acquired, retained and recalled by the individuals. By knowing and studying the various types of theories of learning, the process of learning can be understood (Herbrich, 2016). The principles state in the theories could be taken as guidelines for the purpose of selecting techniques, instructional tools as well as strategies which promote learning (Eysenck, 2013).
The process of learning can be done individually, as well as in a group, like in case of Cooperative Learning. Behavior is the mode by which an individual conducts himself, especially towards the other beings (Dunlosky et al., 2013).
The Learning Theories are: Behaviorism, which says about the behavior changes and the new behavioral patterns, which are acquired through connection between responses and stimuli. Cognitivism, which says that processing of information leads to retention and understanding. Constructivism views that the knowledge of the world is constructed by a person based on one’s own individual experiences (Pritchard, 2013).
This learning theory puts a focus on the behaviors that are objectively observable and sets aside or decreases the independent activities in mind. Learning has been defined by the Behavior theorists as the acquirement of new behavior on ecological conditions. Behaviorism has come into existence from the works of B.F.Skinner. The concept of operant conditioning has also contributed to Behaviorism (Staddon, 2014).
It is believed that knowledge has been existing independently, not within the people. The theorists view the person who is learning as a blank state of mind and must be provided with experience in order to learn.
‘Conditioning’ has been recognized by the Behaviorist theorists as a universal learning process. Two types of conditioning are there, each one yields a dissimilar behavioral pattern:
Classical conditioning takes place when natural reflexes respond to stimuli. As the individuals are biologically connected, as a result, a particular response would be produced by a particular stimulus (Matsumoto et al., 2012). A familiar example of classical conditioning in the context of educational field is in case of situation where students or children show evidence of fears that are irrational, and anxieties such as fear to speak in public, fear of failing, general phobia of school, et cetera.
Operant or Behavioral conditioning takes place when responses to stimuli is strengthened. In short, operant conditioning has been a plain feedback system: that is, if it is followed by a reward or reinforcement, then the response has more probability in future. Similarly, if the response to the stimuli is not followed by a reward or reinforcement, the response has less probability in future.
Every theory has its pros and cons. The criticism of behaviorism includes: Behaviorism do not account for every kind of learning, as it does not regard the activities of mind. Some types of learning have not been explained by Behaviorism–like; the identification of language patterns that are new, by the young kids; for this no reinforcement mechanism exists (Olson, 2015).
Behaviorism has been based on theory that behavior could be scientifically researched without depending on the internal mental states. Behaviorism is a form of materialism, which denies any kind of independent importance of mind. The importance in relation to psychological treatment has been intense, constructing it as one of the stepping stones of pharmacological therapy. Some of the recognized behaviorists are Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward Thorndike, and others.
In the psychological context, Cognitivism has been considered as a theoretical framework to understand the mind that gained credibility in 1950s. In response to the movement of behaviorism, the movement of Cognitivism took place consequently. The Cognitivists opined that Behaviorists have neglected to explain the concept of cognition. Behaviorists, on the other hand, have acknowledged the subsistence of thinking; however, they identified it merely as any behavior.
The concept or the term of Cognitive Psychology has been derived from the Latin word ‘cognoscere’, which means to know or conceptualize, or gather information. Hence, it can be summed up as: Cognitive psychology has been a part of Psychology that relates to information-processing which has been derived in component from the past tradition of the analysis of problem solving as well as analysis of thought (Kendall & Hollon, 2013).
The revolution of the Cognitivist replaced the movement of behaviorism in the 1960s as the leading paradigm. The internal mental activities has been focused by Cognitivism that believes in the concept of exploring the “black box” of human mind that would be important and essential to understand how learning takes place, by the individuals. Psychological processes like knowing, thinking, memorizing, and solving of problems, are required to be analyzed. Knowledge could be considered as a scheme or a mental construction that is symbolic. Learning has been defined to be the alteration in the schemata of the learner (Schumacher, Englander & Carraccio, 2013).
In response to the movement of behaviorism, the theorist of cognitivism said that, the individuals are not like animals that are programmed, which simply respond to the environmental stimuli; rather the individuals are rational beings who call for dynamic participation for the purpose of learning, and the individuals act in accordance and consequence to their thinking.
The behavior changes are observed, merely as a hint of what has been occurring in the mind of the learner. A metaphor has been used by the Cognitive theorist, referring to the mind being compared to a computer: implying that the information comes, then it is processed, thereby leading to certain outcomes.
The growth of psychological structure as well as obtaining knowledge has primarily been stressed by the Cognitive theory. Cognitive theory intends to deal with the formation of the idea regarding the learning process of the student; like how the information have been received; how it has been organized and processed into existing scheme; the process of retrieving the information when recalled.
In short, cognitive theory tends to clarify the method of acquisition of knowledge and the succeeding effects on the psychological structure of mind. Learning has not been about the technicalities done by a learner. Instead it is a process that depends on the knowledge which the learner already has, that is, the information which had already been existing and their technique of gathering fresh knowledge, that is, the process by which they put together the fresh information into the schemas that were already existing.
Acquisition of knowledge has been an activity that consists of inner codification of psychological structures in the mind of the student. In accordance with the theory, the students must take part actively in their own process of learning (Anderson, Spiro & Montague, 2017). Cognitive approaches essentially focuses on the psychological activity of the learner, such as, setting of goals, mental planning, as well as organizational strategy.
Not only the instructional components and the environmental factors play a significant role in case of learning, in the cognitive theory. There have been further key essentials like transformation, learning to code, rehearsing, storing and retrieval of information. The beliefs, thoughts, attitude values of the learner are included in the process of learning (Ausubel, 2012).
There have been certain criticism with regard to the cognitive approach of learning. The primary shortcoming of this approach has been due to the references given to the cognitive processes, which cannot be observed directly. It has been relied profoundly on the inferences.
Thus, much of scientific foundation may not be found in the cognitive approach, on the ground that, it is based on or influenced by what has been taken from the findings. The cognitive approach has both advantages as well as disadvantages. The focus on the practical and useful applications has proved to be an advantage, but unable to observe the hypothetical causes of behavior has proved to be a disadvantage (Spielberger, 2013).
A response to the educational approaches like programmed instruction and behaviorism, constructivism has stated learning to be a dynamic, contextualized method of construction of knowledge instead of merely acquiring it.
Knowledge has been constructed depending upon individual experiences and hypothesis of the surroundings. The Learner constantly tests the hypothesis by the way of social negotiation. Each individual has a dissimilar construction and interpretation of the process of knowledge. The learner has not been considered as a blank slate; instead, it brings earlier experiences of the past as well as cultural factors to a particular situation (Fosnot, 2013).
A frequent confusion regarding the theory of constructivism says that the instructors are not supposed to tell something directly to the students. Rather the student should always be allowed to build up knowledge for himself.
This approach has been a perplexing theory of pedagogy involving the practice and method of teaching, with a theory of knowledge. It has been assumed that the entire knowledge is constructed, from the earlier knowledge of the learner, irrespective of the method by which an individual has been taught. Therefore, in the case of being a listener to a particular lecture, the individual involves in dynamic attempts of constructing new knowledge (Duchesne et al., 2013).
The Social Development Theory of Vygotsky has been considered as one of the fundamentals for Constructivism. The learning theory of Constructivism is a philosophy that enhances the conceptual and logical growth of the students. The principal concept in the learning theory of constructivism is the role played in the education of the student, in relation to the experiences and connection to the adjoining environment (Gopnik & Wellman, 2012).
It has been argued by the learning theory of constructivism that the knowledge are produced by the people and the formation of the meanings have been based on the personal experiences (Jonassen & Land, 2012). Two important concepts of the learning theory of constructivism that form the construction of new knowledge within the individual are assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation causes the individual to assimilate the fresh experiences into older experiences. This helps in the development of new outlooks, in the individuals as well as it helps the individuals to rethink about the earlier misunderstandings. As a result, it helps in the evaluation of the important stuffs, which in turn leads to alteration of their perceptions (Seel, 2012).
In contrast, Accommodation is restructuring the world as well as the experiences that are new into the psychological capacity which have already been present. Individuals visualize a particular manner by which the world functions. In case the matters do not operate with regard to that context, accommodations are to be done and the expectations are to be reframed with the results or outcomes (Dragojevic, Gasiorek & Giles, 2015).
A shortcoming in the Constructivism Theory has been the requirement or need of a structure. Few students need an environment that is highly structured in order to do well. Constructivism requires the teacher to remove the standardized curriculum and have a personalized study course that is based upon the earlier or past knowledge of the student. This might result the some of the students to lag behind the others (Earl, 2012).
Another shortcoming is that, it might lead the students to be perplexed and discouraged as the students might be incapable to form relationships or associations as well as abstracts between the things they already know and the information that have been learnt for themselves.
All of the above theories has its own significance, and are vital to understand (Edgar, 2012). At the time of deciding what strategies are to be used, the following points are to be considered: the intensity of knowledge possessed by the learner; the demands of thought processing, and the outcome which is desired (Ertmer & Newby, 2013).
Positive behaviors of the students have most efficiently supported and developed by the relationship that is based on whole school as well as activities of the classroom, and behavioral expectations that has been communicated in a clear manner.
Many of the students show evidence of behavior, which is said to be challenging. They have a need of intervention and call for additional support for addressing the behavior and for the purpose of developing positive behaviors.
The schools or institutions have the capability to characterize their own category of behavioral expectations. No common grouping or category of behavior exists, which can be accepted universally to be challenging.
Some examples of challenging behavior: Disruptive behaviors like, showing tantrums, screaming, refusal to follow class instructions, et cetera. Withdrawn behaviors like, being shy, being anxious, phobia of school, truant behavior, social isolation, et cetera. Violent behaviors like, head banging, biting, kicking, punching, quarrelling or fighting, and others. Inappropriate behavior in the social context like, improper conversations, act of stealing, showing extremely affectionate towards others, improper touching and others.
Issues related to classroom organization, like unpredictable routines, insufficient materials or not being aware of cultural differences, might to challenging behavior of students.
There are different types of students in a classroom, some are among the toppers, some students tend to be lost, not knowing what to do. There are mediocre students as well and there are least interested to study. The different students exhibit different kinds of behavior, which depends on their personality.
In the first instance, it has been proved by research that previous knowledge influence the abstract growth and conceptual modification in the students. With the conceptual growth, the individuals or students include or make an addition to their knowledge that is existing, as well as with the conceptual change, students have an opportunity of correcting misconception or error in knowledge that is existing. Facilitation of change or conceptual growth needs first obtainment of a basic level of knowledge of the student, preceding the start of every unit by formative assessment.
One way of assessment of knowledge that has been existing, involves beginning the unit with a small list of six to ten statements that has to be marked true/false and consequently requiring to have a class discussion regarding the results. The outcome of the said discussion can help in guiding the choice of activities and assignments, which will be suitable for facilitating the conceptual growth or change. Earlier knowledge can be helpful to the students for the incorporation of background knowledge as well as portray connections between the units throughout the course. This theory is applicable in case of the second situation as well.
In the third instance, Acquiring of knowledge as well as skill that is long term, is largely reliant on practice. This theory illustrates with the help of experimentation and strategies that helps the students in a more effective manner to learn the materials for long-term memorizing. Further, examples of this theory can help to provide information regarding instruction during the course. By the issuance of frequent formative assessments by activities, sample tests, practice problems; the instructors or teachers can help the students to increase their skills, confidence and knowledge. In addition, the instructors who conduct practice activities or tasks at regular spaced interval, can help the students to achieve better increases in the ability of long-term retrieval. Practice tests are to be inclusive of open-ended questions, which are required for retrieval of prior knowledge as well as the challenge of application of information to new contexts or situations. This theory can be applicable to the third instance as the students would be able to practice throughout the session.
Conclusion
Learning is the method of acquisition or gathering of skills or knowledge, which can be through various means, like through the process of studying, by personal experiences or being taught, et cetera. The conceptual framework to describe, how the knowledge is processed, retained and absorbed during the course of learning is known as Learning Theories. The Learning Theories are: Behaviorism, which says about the behavior changes and the new behavioral patterns, which are acquired through connection between responses and stimuli. Cognitivism, which says that processing of information leads to retention and understanding. Constructivism views that the knowledge of the world is constructed by a person based on one’s own individual experiences. It can be said that, every theory has its own significance, and is vital to understand. At the time of deciding what strategies are to be used, the following points are to be considered: the intensity of knowledge possessed by the learner; the demands of thought processing, and the outcome which is desired.
References
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