Managing solid waste is a significant global problemfor both pastoral as well as metropolitan areas. Problem of an increased production and subsequent accumulation of waste have been further accentuated by the rapid urbanization and industrialization as well as due to technological and financial development. Even though these aspects have proven to be advantageous to mankind, it has also led to significant environmental degradation due to the waste production and waste accumulation which adversely affects the ecosystem and only through recycling such an impact can be mitigated. Apart from degrading the ecosystem, the waste also affects the aesthetic value of a place and can also impact the local climate. Due to an absence of an good system, management of solid waste is still of significant concern in both underdeveloped as well as developing nations. Ebna et al. (2013) points out that such challenges also lead to an adverse impact on the environment. The types of solid waste can be varied such as municipal, industrial and hazardous waste. The waste that is created from households, marketplaces and urban areas are called municipal waste. In market places, various types of waste is generated from discarded food, textiles, plastic, papers, glass, wood, rubber and ferrous objects. When such waste decomposes or degrades, it can release pollutants in the ecosystem causing its degradation and causing pollution to the soil, air, water (both surface as well as ground water) adversely affecting the plant life and also can cause increase in the pest population as the waste can provide a suitable habitat for them, and therefore it can lead to an increase in infectious diseases (Ibro, 2015).
The waste that is generated from domestic, commercial, industrial, agrarian, and construction activities can be termed as solid wastes (Kaoje et al., 2015). Generation of Municipal Solid Waste or MSW increases as a nation develops, expands and grows aided by advancing technologies and financial strength. The expansion and economic growth of the developing nations can be associated with both a growth in the population as well as industrialization which helps in the acceleration of the urbanization process according to Pradhan et al. (2012). The rate of urbanization is the lowest in Africa with only 38% of the continent being urbanized and therefore is considered to be the ‘least developed’ continent.
According to Bello et al. (2016) at a current rate of population growth at 4% per annum, African countries are now experiencing a rapid population growth aided by an increase in urbanization and wealth. This in turn have increased the consumption of products and services thereby also increasing the production of waste and creating a significant problem for waste management (Salhofer et al., 2008). With an increase in per capita income and per capita wealth and population growth, a large quantity of Municipal Solid Waste is created by the African nations which are having an adverse impact on the ecosystem as well as the health and wellbeing of people.
Nigeria, with a population of 170 million people, is considered to be among the highest generatorsof solid waste in the continent, creating about 32 tons of solid waste per year of which only 20% – 30% of the waste gets collected for waste management. This shows the alarming condition of Solid Waste Management system in Nigeria. This also results in the solid wastes being disposed haphazardly leading to obstruction of drainage networks, septic tanks and choking the water bodies. A significant part of the generated waste is produced through domestic activities, local industries, traders and artisans which litters the environment and degrades the ecosystem. Furthermore, due to a lack of effective waste collection and management strategies, insufficient budget for waste management across Nigeria poses a big risk of an environmental disaster in the region. It has been pointed out by the Bioenergy Consult, 2018 that only few of the 36 states and Federal Capital territories of Nigeria have shown interest in effective management of waste and to solve the waste management crisis faced by the nation.
Waste management in Nigeria has been significantly challenged by a growing population and a lack of a properwaste management strategy. Implementation of waste management policies by the government is often very poor and insufficient. Programs to educate the public and sensitize them to the outdoor environment often lacks the required intensity, continuity or coverage and are therefore not adequate to change the attitude of the public towards the environment and indifference towards it. This problem has been further accentuated by inadequate funding, proper facility and human resources as well as due to the usage if incompatible technologies and unjust taxing system. Therefore, to develop a sustainable system of managing waste, it is vital to implement a holistic approach for a program that will include every technological, psychological, fiscal, cultural and communal factors of waste management.
The study will focus on waste management system adopted by other developing nations likeSouth Africa and Brazil, relating their utility in the context of management of solid waste in Nigeria, recommending the best strategies that can be implemented in the country. In the study, the types of MSW (such as hazardous and electronic waste) would also be assessed in order to develop effective strategies of waste management in the region.
The aim is to identify the effectiveness of different strategies of waste management as well as the most suitable strategy among them which ca be adopted in Nigeria using comparative analysis of the strategies.
The aim of this study is:
Paralally documenting and relating the waste management strategies currently in use in Brazil, South Africa and Nigeria.
The precise objectives of this study are:
In this section, the types of waste, their management strategies that is applicable in the context of Nigeria and how public participation is important for solid waste management are discussed. Additionally, the various strategies of waste management used in South Africa, Brazil and Nigeria are also compared. For the purpose of this study, electronic waste, municipal waste and hazardous waste are considered.
Any type of materials or substances that is produced from domestic activities, industrial operations, has no economic value or demand and needs to be discarded or disposed can be termed as waste (Sridhar, 1996). Two main types of waste discussed here include liquid waste and solid waste. Liquid waste comprises of the waste that flows from industries and households such as unclean water, sluge, oil, grease and organic fluids. On the other hand, solid waste mainly comprises of unwanted and discarded household and industrial materials such tin, paper, ceramic, metals, glass, plastic and food wraps. Waste can also be classified according to their sources as agricultural, domestic, industrial, hazardous, household and radioactive waste.
Depending on the source of generation, the solid waste can be categorized into different types like agricultural, household, commercial, institutional, municipal, construction, industrial and hazardous waste (Edward et al., 2017).
This type of waste mainly is comprised of materials that are unwanted and are generated or produced from domestic, commercial and industrial activities. MSW can be classified into three board categories based on their sources such as industrial, commercial and residential, denoting where the waste is being generated (Adewole, 2009). Household or domestic waste are those that are produced on a daily basis from households and mainly comprised of organic substances produced due to the preparation or consumption of food, plastic waste and ash that is produced due to the cooking and heating of food as well as refuse, trash and waste produced in the household. These waste are generated from daily activities in a household at every moment by the occupants of the house. The main examples of household and domestic waste are tin, plastic, cloths, glass, metal, hazardous waste, electronic waste and plastic (Bello et al., 2016). Commercial wastes on the other hand are produced from shops, supermarkets and minimarkets and can include plastic bags, paper, nylon and paper. Similarly, industrial waste comprises of waste produced from industrial processes and can be solid, liquid or sludge by nature and can often be toxic, poisonous, corrosive and hazardous to humans and environment. The solid industrial waste can include metal, machine scraps and grits, paper, sawdust, glass pieces, discarded plastic parts and pieces of wood (Omole & Alkinde, 2013). Industrial wastes are generally produced in large quantities from various types of industries such as automobile, power plant, construction, fabric and manufacturing industry and the type of waste can depend on the type of raw materials that are used (Bello et al., 2016). The African countries where development of businesses and industries have taken place for various products such as textile, food, iron and steel, printing and chemicals are generally classified developing and fares above the other non industrialized nations in the continent. In these countries about 61% pf the waste produced are from residences, industries and commercial places such as markets and hospitals (Mwesigye, 2009). Institutional waste is generated from schools and colleges while from the construction industries waste such as demolition waste (or rubbish) are generated. Municipal waste also consists of the waste that are collected from cleaning of the streets, beaches and parks and also from waste waster treatment (Nebiyeleul, 2006). Additional forms of waste that are also included in the category of municipal waste include agricultural waste and medical waste. The medical waste are produced from hospitals and clinics and require good waste management system especially since the medical waste can be hazardous in nature (Bello et al., 2016). Agricultural waste is created from farming and agricultural processes like plowing, ridging, harrowing, preening, cleaning, harvesting and planting of crops and other waste generated from animal slaughter, poultry dumps and animal husbandry (Edward et al., 2017). These forms of waste can be used for the production of biogas and bio compost due to their organic nature (Daniel, 2012). The activities that is associated with the management of MSW, from its production to its disposal involves the following steps: waste production, waste collection, waste storage,waste transportation, waste segregation, waste processing and finally its disposal (AAshish et al., 2014). MSW generally are comprised of materials may or may not be biodegradable and their volume, composition and weight can vary from one location to anotherdepending on the culture, way of life and population of the region. Sometimes, the disposed waste in MSW can include materials of reusable value such as glass, paper, plastic, metals and remains of food. However, the waste can also include hazardous materials (Butu &Mshelia, 2014). Therefore it is vital that an effective and efficient system of waste collection is used to prevent the waste from contaminating the environment and spread diseases. Electronic waste is also produced from the manufacturing, usage and disposal of electronic gadgets and in Africa, its production is rapidly accelerating. It can therefore be summarized that an effective strategy for the management of all these types pof waste is necessary to prevent their disastrous impact on the environment (Palczynski, 2002).
Solid waste collection defined as the assembling of collected and stored waste materials in order to evacuate them. The further assembly of generated domestic waste was done for differentiating between residential, commercial and recreational facilities. Therefore, the amount of waste multiplies or destroyed depending on the pattern of generation and logistics connected with collection become completed (Edward et al, 2017). Three foremost stage of the waste collection was observed in Africa which involves an informal stage, primary stage, and the second stage. The collection of waste from household to community collection points were initially done in the informal stage, primary stages. Urban councils and private operators operate the secondary stages. The private operators play a massive role in waste collection. They use the direct method such as door-to-door approach while assembling and collecting waste from households (Bello et al, 2016). Another method of collecting waste is “summon to bring” which commonly used in African countries. In this approach, in the particular time of the week, the collection truck comes. When it reaches the spot, it hoots its horn to draw attention from people to collect the waste for disposal. The rate of waste disposal depends on the level of individuals ( low and high income). The waste disposal is more frequent for higher class compared to the lower income class (Kaseva and Mbuligwe 2005). Manual loading wastes onto the truck used for disposing of the majority of the waste by government workers and volumes, quantity, representative varies in quantity. Approximately, 35% to 68% of waste was collected which resembles the other developing countries of the urban council (Supriyadi et al, 2000; Kadafa et al, 2014). Moreover, in most African courtiers the private sector operators arrived to rise up to the level of collection compared to the urban council in advanced countries where they are more time dependent. In Nigeria there are several private sectors are there for collecting waste. in Abuja, Lagos, Ibadan and other states in the country, they have a Specific route and particular time arrival. Although the waste collection varies but to a very large extent there is a steadiness in the collection. The irregularities occurred due to transportation problem and, insufficient staffs and increased living cost. The waste collection was done in conjunction with the owners of the house. For each house, the waste collector was designed for collecting waste from door to door and places it back (Liyala 2011).THE Disposed of wastes deposited at the point of collections where it transported to the station and wastes are sorted further to the final disposal point(Adewole 2009). Interestingly, there is no separation occurs at South African cities and towns but many developing countries adopted developing informal waste sector. The accumulated evidence reported that 80–90% of collection done by South African informal sectors (by weight) of consumed paper and recycled packaged, saving municipalities which cost R309.2–R748.8 million in landfill space (Godfrey et al, 2016). Therefore, The informal sector is eager to create connections in the values, service, and chains
Electron waste has no specific definition, however, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) described e-waste as any application using an electric power supply that lost its life expectancy (UNEP, DTIE, 2007a). e-waste produced from the electrical items such as computers, TV, cell phones, batteries etc. Consequently, it contributed to the risks to the health of humans, soil, animal and the ecosystem. The cathode ray tubes (CRT) of an electrical device are consisting of phosphorous, antimony while electronic products with circuit boards have, beryllium, antimony. Other hazardous materials are cobalt, manganese, brome, and barium, among many others (Adediran and Abdulkarim, 2012). Therefore, recycling and the disposal processes of waste management sector become complex due to diverse hazardous components of electric waste. The environment and human health are crucial for our living, a considerate number of electronic waste poses threat to the human and ecosystem that includes mercury and arsenic of fluorescent lamp, dental amalgams, and thermometers. it is an expensive process which shows the significance of altering product make up from raw material. In countries like South Africa, waste bags and are used for disposal and found in general landfill sites. In the West Rand District municipalities, no current awareness and education of electric waste disposal for households and no e-waste drops source separation observed (Bongekile and Edison 2016). According to Schluep et al., Brazil generated the second maximum quantity of e-waste. 96,800 tons of computer scrapes were produced in 2005(0.5 kg/cap) which are lesser than the quantity generated in China that was 300,000 tons in 2007 (0.2 kg/cap). The much lesser amount produced in Colombia, Peru South Africa than China and Brazil. In advanced countries e-waste have existed where mobile phones, used computers are imported as second-hand materials. Nigeria has established second-hand goods like any other African countries for connecting the digital segregation because of craving for global Information Technology (IT). These countries are poor to generate these electronic goods and have no capacity to dispose of e-waste safely. Computer and Allied Product Dealers Association of Nigeria, stated that 75% of the electronics shipped as the second-hand irreversible goods in Ikeja, Lagos. Furthermore, due to the rapid development of new brands Electronic Equipment become outdated with month, which further dumped into the landfills as E-waste. Consequently, it poses threat to the human and the environment if not properly handled (Adediran and Abdulkarim 2012). Electronic waste refers to any discarded electrical waste with no intention of reuse (Step Initiative 2014). The Global and Regional E-waste monitor 2017 stated that E-waste categorized in a different way depending on: the type of product, size and treatment technology. Previously, The European Union’s WEEE directed a product-oriented classification which recently shifted to a treatment-oriented classification with six main categories:
E-waste referred to as a global problem not only due to the growing technologies but because of lack of proper treatment and prevention which include the active participation of different actors across the national borders. For several decades, for controlling Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Disposal, The international community working on e-waste disposal within the Basel convention where the transboundary movement was restricted.
Global and Regional E-waste monitor of 2017 reported that Asia generated the highest volume of E-waste in the generation of E-waste incontinent of the world (see figure 2), that estimated 16 million tonnes as at 2014. However, considering a per capita basis, compared to Europe and America, which generated fourth time higher e-waste, Asia, generated only 3.7kgs per inhabitant. The international community involved in five such issues that are :
Measuring e-waste volumes: through assessment and interventions
Policy collaboration: through developing relevant and effective e-waste management policies.
Building the ability and capability of various actors in the e-waste chain which involves regulators, customers, enforcement and recyclers.
Assessment of the impacts of transboundary movements from the perspective of social, economic environment.
E-waste becomes rich urban mine when it is collected, treated and recycled properly. It becomes a crucial resource when it minimizes the essentiality of prime resources production but can pose threat to the humankind and environment when disposed of carelessly. As consumers need for their disposal of E-waste varies, the original purpose, compositions, collections, and requirement of the treatment varies. according to extract from the Regional E-waste monitor report, designation of E-waste from consumers are one of the following :
The recycling is done through either formal take back or informal system, which further gets back to various raw materials. The formal take-back system has been used by various continents including Asia where channel where industrialized materials and energy recovery facilities exist. However, only 6.5 million tonnes are collected through official take-back systems out of 48.1 million tonnes e-waste generated globally(Baldé et al, 2015).
Norman (1989) stated that Hazardous waste is any unnecessary materials such as corrosive, explosive, radioactive and toxic which will pose threat to the humankind. it has an effect on public health and environment because it is nondegradable, hazardous even at the lower intensity. These waste generally produced from bio-medical, laboratories of universities wastes, radioactive materials, and paint manufacturer and so on. Hazardous waste also refers to any waste, which involves inorganic or natural compounds having the physical, chemical or toxicological effect that can affect human and environment (Bongekile and Edison 2016).
Brazil generated a greater degree of hazardous waste and in the year 2007, the Brazilian Association of Waste Treatment Companies showed that the country treated approximately 5.9million metric tons, which are 30% greater than the previous year. In 2007 , estimated the annual income of the hazardous waste sector business was US$ 856 million (R$ 1.7 billion) of industrial waste that generated approximately 81%. The Law nº 12.305 from 02/08/2010 – National Policy on Solid Waste defined hazardous waste as any material possessing characteristics of toxicity, reactivity, and pathogenicity, which further threatened human and the environment. In order to resolve the issues such as Federal decree and the PNRS established Law nº 12.305/2010 which proved appropriate management techniques which include management and proper allocation and disposal. Therefore, waste management Waste management plans must be developed and executed for managing the waste collected from mining, health care, public sanitation activities through collaboration.
the frequency of generation of various types of hazardous waste observed in the West Rand District Municipality (WRDM), of South Africa and it consists of Randfontein, Merafong city, Mogale City and Westonaria. WRDM generated wastes affect environment when not properly managed. for managing Hazardous waste specific handling, treatment and discard method where gate controllers and spotters are present to screen them on the landfill site. since, WRDM, lacked the facility of discard site of the hazardous site, it destroyed at the plant in Roodepoort Johannesburg (Bongekile and Edison 2016).
The following criteria required for deciding the types of hazard:
Depending on the characteristics and amount, hazardous waste poses threat to the humankind and surroundings. Figure 6 showed that it is secondary material, which further divided into six categories as inherent waste: by-products, spent materials, commercial chemical products, sludge, and scrap materials. Subcategories of solid waste generated by hazardous wastes that further generated a subcategory of secondary waste. Interestingly, few secondary wastes are recycled and reused and thereby do not categorized as waste (Municipal solid waste and treatment unit 9).
Characteristics of hazardous waste are measurable properties, which cause the health risk, and environment populations and need regulations. Inappropriate disposed or treated hazardous waste will lead to a maximization of mortality or widespread illness. In order asses, whether the waste is hazardous Municipal solid waste and treatment unit 9 follows following characteristics:
Waste materials that burn vigorously and immediately with a flash point lower than 60o C give produce ignitable hazardous waste. For determining the waste flash point, material safety data sheet need to evaluate. Naphtha, epoxy resins and adhesives are the example of
A corrosive waste referred to waste in liquid form, having ph lower than 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5. In industries, NaOH or other solutions used for cleaning purpose of metal discard, then give rise to corrosive waste.
Unsteady materials producing gas, which creates toxic gases when exposed to corrosive materials or reacts with water and have the ability to cause the explosion, are called reactive waste. Cyanides, waste gunpowder, sodium metal are the example of reactive waste.
Many products fit into the characteristics of hazardous waste and are classified into five categories (Municipal solid waste and treatment unit 9):
Chemicals become hazardous when it poses threat due to its toxicity. It divided into four characteristics i.e. synthetic organics, inorganic metals, salt, acids, and bases.
Radioactive substance creates ionization radiation and transformed to hazardous one due to long exposure or in contact with radiation, which in turn destroys living things. Radioactive substances continue to decay until its half-life value. National and state regulatory agencies manage these wastes.
The prime source of biomedical wastes are hospitals and biological research centers.
The wastes involve malignant tissues thrown away during surgeries and other materials, bandages and drugs.
Flammable waste also referred to the hazardous wastes and this group is critical due to the fact that it has characteristics of high potential hazard when stored, collected or transported.
Mainly artillery materials generally give rise to Explosive hazardous. it has higher potential when stored and transported and therefore it should be done separately. it can be gaseous or storage.
Household hazardous wastes: nail polish, chemicals for cleaning purpose and liquids or solids are household hazardous storage.
Hazardous wastes are chiefly generated in small amount in communities. However, there Is a lack of sufficient data when t comes to the amount of hazardous wastes generated from industries as well as in communities. In order to eradicate the issue of lack of data, one of the measures that can be taken is to carry out a through inventory as well as measurement studies. The first step includes creating a community inventory by identifying the possible sources of the wastes that are hazardous. The total amount of hazardous wastes that are generated from any given source needs to be determined with the help of data that are being collected during the onsite visits.
When it comes to the spillage of hazardous wastes that are containerized, it should be added to the sources of wastes listed above. It has be found that the amount of wastes that occurs due to spillage I quite large as well as largely unknown. The result of spillage is however huge and faced by the community where the spillage takes place. Considering the fact that the occurrence of spillage is unpredictable, the impact of the same when it comes to the human health is much higher compared to that of the regularly generated hazardous wastes.
Storage practices that are performed onsite are considered to be a function of the types as well as quantity of hazardous wastes that are generated along with the time over which the generation takes place. Majority of time, when a huge quantity of hazardous wastes are generated, special facilities that posses enough ability of holding wastes accumulated over a period of time are used. When a limited amount of waste is generated, it may be stored in the containers while a limited quantity has been stored. The containers as well as the facilities that are send in order to store hazardous waste should be chosen on the basis of the characteristics of the waste.
The chief purpose of a dedicated hauler or a waste generator is to collect the hazardous waste delivering to a treatment or disposal site. Collection vehicles are loaded in two ways. Either, the wastes that are stored in large capacity tanks are drained as well as pumped into the collection vehicle or wastes are first packed inside big drums ad sealed container an them loaded manually onto flat back trucks. This containers are transported unopened to the to the treatment as well as disposal faculty. In order to avoid accidents alnd loss of life, at lea two collectors are opined to be esignated at the time of waste collection. In the following table the tools that are used fr collection of the wastes are identified.
it should be noted that that for short hauled distances, majority of times flat back trucks are used for drum storage as well as waste collection. When the distances got increased, large tank trucks, railroad tank as well as trailers is used.
When it comes to handling hazardous wastes, it should be understood that it is quite deferent from handling MSW in the waste transfer stations. Hazardous wastes are not compressed as well as delivered by the community resides. Instead of that, the liquid hazardous wastes are extracted from the collection vehicles and then the solid wastes are reloded an taken away for transport to processing a well as disposal facilities.
The chief objective of processing the hazardous waste is to recover the materials that are useful along with preparing the wastes for disposal. The processing of the wastes can be conducted both offsite as well as onsite. Several factors are responsible that determines whether the process should be conducted onsite or off site. They include the worth of the wastes, the technical, environmental and economical aspects of the onsite treatment processes a well as the availability of the nearest off-sit treatment facility. Other different ways through which the hazardous wastes should be treated includes the physical, thermal, chemical or biological ways.
According to Freeman (1988), the physical as well as chemical treatments can be considered as an crucial aspect of majority of the hazardous waste treatment operations.
Two major thermal treatments are there that are used in order to treat hazardous wastes.
The biological treatment of waste is performed in order to take the advantage of the potential of the hazardous wastes in terms of removal efficiency as well as cost. The major methods that are being used for treating biological wastes include:
Irrespective of their state, majority of the hazardous waste is disposed either near the surface or by burying them deep. In the following table, various disposal methods have been discussed:
In spite of the fact that the controlled landfill technique is considered to be an effective method of disposing solid municipal wastes as well as control the generation of hazardous wastes, they are not effective enough for disposing a large amount of hazardous wastes. The reason behind this is as follows:
Therefore it can be clearly understood that an adequate care needs to be taken while selecting the disposal site as well as the design off the hazardous wastes. Generally, the disposal sites for the hazardous wastes should be distinct from those o the municipal solid wastes. It is highly crucial to find out a better way of disposing hazardous wastes since in environment, hazardous wastes are available in solid liquid as well as gaseous forms. In order to prevent co-disposal of the mentioned waste, a separate storage section should be constructed with in the landfill site for different classes of compatible wastes. A better method for the hazardous waste needs to be decided since the states of hazardous wastes varies from liquid, sludge , solid and dusts. For prevent the co-disposal of unsuited wastes, different storage sections needs to be selected for different classes of compatible wastes (Phelps et al. 1995).
Generally, liquid wastes are stored in tank and are introduced in the landfills through lagoons or trenches, irrigation or injection. Sledges are also put in the trenches. When the light weight wastes are disposed the disposal region is kept wet in order to prevent the flying of the dusts. Hazardous solid waste depicted due to the high degree of impartiality. in order to prevent the breakage as well as rupturing of the containers during the process of unlading , safety measures needs to be taken. In order to avoid rupturing the containers needs to be unloaded as well as laced individually. The opening of the containers should be supervised as well as controlled in order to ensure that the soil layers that exists between each of the container as well as the equipment is not getting squished or deformed. Measures should be taken in order to prevent any leachate evading from the landfill site while creating a landfill site for hazardous wastes. This may includes a clay liner, and in some cases, both clay as well as impermeable membrane liners are used. A coating of limestone should be placed bellow the bottom of the landfill in order to neutralize the pH of leachate .After that, a soil cover of 25 mm needs to be placed over the liner. The completed site is required to be monitored continuously both with sample wells as well as visually.
The term waste management chiefly involves the generation, collection, transportation as well as the disposal of wastes. A waste management system which is poor creates a great hazard to the human health as well as to the ecosystem. The discipline related to the regulation of the generation, storage,, collection, transfer as well as transport, processing, disposal of the wastes in a way that is in an agreement with the finest standards of economics, public health, engineering, protection, aesthetics as well as other environmental considerations is solid waste management. When irt comes to integrated waste management it refers to the election as well as application of proper methods, management and technologies along with range of techniques that depends on the type of waste to be disposed, the economic growth level of the country as well the assurance of the government. Solid waste management method includes waste minimization, recycling as well as reusage before the thought of disposal arrives (Hameed, 2014).
In the process demonstrated in figure , the types of wastes that are disposed from market. These wastes are accumulated in separate bins depending keeping accordance to the type of the wastes. Then the wastes are being collected separately in an appropriate manner as well as transported to the station. Recyclable processing or well as eco friendly substances that includes bottles, plastics, newspaper, containers should be reprocessed in this management process. Thus this process is also considered to be highly economical. Other wastes are preferred in Viennese process. In this processes wastes are segregated into two categories , namely, residual wastes and bio waste in Vietnamese process. Residual wastes move into bio wastes into incinerations into composts. These composed are the in the BOD pending where oxidation takes place with the help of natural oxygen that is also able to minimize environmental hazard as well as a economic process (Ebna et al., 2013).
This approach of waste management depends on the following elements:
Waste minimization is an activity which includes decreasing or reprocessing of waste that ends up in the reduction in the amount of solid or hazardous waste. Waste minimization processes include reprocessing, source division, substitution of product, change in the process of manufacturing and the use of fewer dangerous raw materials.
A comprehensive solid waste management organization comprises some or all of the followings (Diaz et al, 2005):
According to mathues el al, the local authority that forms part of the city government, is responsible for collective waste, transporting and disposing the same from Brazil. CODECA possess approximately 260 employees and 29 truck in total. The collection of wastes takes place from Monday to Saturday. In Caxius do Sul, waste collection is differentiated into standard collection for organic wastes whereas selective collection for recyclable wastes. Since the year 1991, the city possesses selective collection. Organic a well as selective wastes are differentiated at the moment of generation by the households. The city then assembles the wastes with the help of two methods. Firstly, by collecting the sates from door to door. The collection occurs three times a week. Secondly, the municipality has made public containers were all the citizen can dispose their household wastes. On the streets in the central of the city, two different containers for waste disposals are placed where one collect recyclable wastes and other collects organic wastes. The recyclable wastes collected are delivered to CODECA to the scavenger association. Manual collection is also performed using different types of equipment including vehicles as well as push carts.
Several authorities have faced challenges pertaining to the management of the solid waste sustainably and effectively. The general public has mentioned that solid waste management is responsibility of the local authorities but waste is generated by the general public and thus they have the duty of managing the same. The communities can participate in the activities of solid waste management by 2 ways. The households can manage their waste by strategies of reusing, compost pits etc. Secondly, the communities can follow the programs and the policies that are framed by the local authorities (Mallika Pinnawala, 2016).
In Nigeria, liquid waste is usually managed arbitrarily and no waste water and sewage treatment strategies are used in the country. As a result of this, the sewage and waste water enter the water bodies such as rivers and lakes via the drainage systems. However, human feces are managed through toilet pits, ventilated toilets and septic tanks (Sridhar, 2006). Due to a lack of an effective waste management system in public places, the excreta and fecal waste are often mixed with other solid wastes which create a big problem for waste recycling process. In Nigeria the waste is often dumped indiscriminately and in the open by the roadsides, canals, lagoons and landfills due to which collection of waste also becomes a significant problem. The waste is generally collected using variouskinds of vehicles likecompactor trucks,open back trucks, skip trucks, mini trucks, side loaders, tippers and rear loaders. However, 60% of these vehicles are unavailable or out of service or are located in the port city of Onitsha and the rest of the available vehicles are prone to frequent breakdown as they are overused (Agunwamba et al., 2003).
Lagos is considered to be the second fastest developing city in African continent and seventh fastest growing city globally. Reports show that the population of the city exceeds 21 million people thereby making it the largest city, producing solid waste exceeding
10,000 tonsevery day with a daily per capital production of 0.5kg. Even though Lagos serves as a model for many other African cities, the Lagos State Waste Management Agency (LAWMA) and Visionscape face a major challenge towadds managing the MSW. It is therefore important to engage private firms for waste management in order to support effective waste collection and disposal. One of the biggest problem faced in the management of waste in Nigeria is a delayed collection of household and domestic solid waste due to which the waste remains uncollected for weeks resulting in the overflow and spillage of the waste and contaminating the environment.
Due to a lack of proper waste management strategy as well as a lack of adequate vehicles to transport the waste, they are often disposed in other places. Additionally, due to a lack of transportation vehicles, the waste is often overloaded with almost 6 tons of waste in order to maximize waste collection in fewer trips which has been harshly criticized by environmental activists due to the risks of waste spillage from the trucks.
Cities like Oyo with an estimated population of 6 million people also lack effective system for managing waste and the Oyo State Solid Waste Management Authority (OYOWMA) and the people of Oyo have reverted to burning of waste, which is also seen in the cases of Iseyin and Ogbomoso. The lack of effective waste management system also causes the costs of waste collection, processing and disposal more expensive due to which the waste is disposed in the flood plains and catchment areas further complicating the process of waste management. Similar challenges are also faced by the river states and Kano in the management of solid waste. Overall, even though an increasing population of Nigeria have helped in significant economic development it has also increased the adverse impact on the environment due to the production of large amount of waste that is poorly managed (BioEnergy Consults).
Several adverse impacts on public and environmental health is caused due to the improper waste disposal especially from the urban places of Nigeria. Some of the most significant adverse impact are outlined below:
House of house collection of waste in Nigeria is a rare process and is only done in a few parts of the urban areas. Various types of vehicles are utilized to collect waste, however the number of available vehicles are not adequate and are in bad shape in most of the cities. In some parts of the countries the coverage of the waste management service is inadequate and in few places the waste is not at all collected as they have inadequate access to services for waste collection. According to Ogwueleka (2003), less than 60% of MSW is collected in Nigeria as a result of which the generation and accumulation of waste far exceeds the rate at which they are cleared. The transfer stations which were once functional in Nigeria are no longer functional which further complicates the problem. In Abuja, the land that was once used for waste transfer are now used for other purposes. As a result, the vehicles that collect the waste directly dispose them at the disposal areas and the waste often accumulates in the roadside in open dumps. These dumping areas often acts as reservoirs of disease carrying pathogens such as bacteria, insects and rodents. Because of limitations in budget, the local authorities are seldom able to effectively manage the increasing accumulation of solid waste and in some urban places, private companies are often sub-contracted for the collection of refuse and they generally operate at a higher efficiency compared to governmental agencies. The private agencies are mostly employed to manage the wasteas the government is unable to cope up with the work. However, the even with the involvement of these private organizations for the management of waste, it failed to show much success as the agencies are mainly drivin by profit making agenda and their activities are unmonitored, unsupervised and unregulated by the government according to Ogwueleka (2009). The situation is further exaggerated due to incompetence and malpractice of the contractors, delays in the payments to the contractors and due to the unprofitability of solid waste management industry. Onibokun (1999) pointed out that in 1991, 25 private agencies were registered in Ibadan for the collection of waste but only 10 agencies were found to be operational. There is also a variation in the efficiency in the collection of solid waste from 50% in urban regions to las low as 5% in some semi urban localities. In Lagos and Onitsha technologies of sanitary landfills have been adopted 20 years ago, however much of those landfills are not functional which further supports open dumping practice due to a lack of regulations and standards of practice or monitoring strategies and the waste is often burnt to reduce their volume. However, the practice of Incineration (using high temperature) of Waste to Energy (WTE) has not been adopted in Nigeria with the exception of hospitals as the medical wastes are generally burnt on a small scale. It should also be noted that in developing countries the costs of maintaining incineration plants for waste can be very expensive which limits their usage. Moreover the practice also requires a strict practice of controlling the smoke and disposal of toxic ash in landfills which further increases their operational costs. Three incinerators were developed in Lagos by 1979, however none of them were used. By 1989 two of those incinerators had to be dismantled dismantled due to a lack of sue and the third incinerator was converted into a civic centre. This clearly showed that the strategy of using incinerators for the management of waste in Nigeria is not sustainable. The unsustainability of the incinerators was mainly due to the high content of moisture in the waste making them unfir for combustion due to which fuel is often needed as well as due to the inadequate content of inflammable materials and a low calorific value of the waste (Ogwueleka, 2003). Composting programs are virtually non existant in a national scale in Nigeria, however backyard composting is used in few places. This process allows an aerobic bacterial decomposition of the organic waste under controlled temperatures, pH and humidity creating biocomposts. One of the most effective composting strategy can be Window Composting which is cheap and suitable for developing countries. Small scale composting practiced by various International Non Governmental Organizations (NGO) have been observed in Nigeria but such practice fails to provide a significant result on the national scale (UNEP-IETC, 1996)
Federal Environmental Protection Agency is the first agency was established in the 30th December 1988 through the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) Act. FEPA has the legal responsibility of environmental protection. The FEPA is the first decree that has the far reaching legislation and the most comprehensive legislation in Nigeria and due to this it is the consolidated legislation. FEPA consists of the penal provisions for the offenders that discharge hazardous substances into the water, land and air. FEPA decree issues standards and guidelines for the control and abatement of all forms of the pollution. FEPA released the first ever guidelines int h eyear 1990 which included the waste management practices, industrial activities for having a compatible practice with respect to the promotion of the safe environment, protection of the unborn. In the year 1991, FEPA established an enforcement and inspectorate department that will be responsible for the compliance monitoring, chemical tracking, standard regulation.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Act complemented the FEPA decree and it was important for the establishment of the industries and the land utilization. The major aim of this act to ensure the impact of the developmental projects are both predicted and addressed before the initiation of the project. The goal of the act is the promotion of the sustainable development and the environmental audit can be called as the second stage of the assessment. Environmental audit report sometimes seen to complement and supplement the process of EIA. The EIA department in the FEPA was established in the year 1993. This department was given the responsibility of the enforcement as well as the compliance in every section of the nation’s development effort. This act provides the machinery that will lead the development of Nigeria. There is also the providing of giving hearing to the members of public and the interested public.
The process of exploitation and the exploration of the mines and the minerals can result in to a serious damage and destruction of the environment. The section 65 of this act prohibits pollution the course of water or any water body by any person due to the practice mining or prospecting of the minerals. The section 33 (4) of this act says that any person involved with the process of mining must close the wells, trenches, and holes made by him to restore the land to its original condition. The section 254 (1) of this act provides the provision of mine field police that will work to enforcement of laws and the and sustainable use of the resources.
This act provides the provision of prohibiting the dumping, depositing and carrying of the hazardous wastes into territorial water, on any land and related matters. Thus, as the name implies it is a penal legislation. The act includes that a person will be punished due to the omission or act as stated in the section 12 of the act. The act mainly focusses on the criminal prosecution related to causing a damage and this act does not provide any type of compensation to the victim of the damage. The section 6 of the act provides a provision of forfeiting the aircraft, vehicle or the land which is connected with the violation. However, no such case has ever occurred and no such hazardous substance has ever moved into Nigeria. The petroleum act under this regulation provided the regulatory framework for the environmental legislation.
International Convention for the Prevention and Control of pollution of the sea by oil act was enacted and it explicitly deals with the waste generated during the oil pollution. The offences that occurs with respect to oil pollution in the world high sea and the territorial water of Nigeria is dealt with this act. The act has several loopholes due to which it cannot be implemented properly.
The following can be concluded from the study on waste management system:
collect organic waste in a daily basis manner.
Recyclable wastes are collected selectively.
Collections of waste materials from households daily or thrice week.
Utilization of public waste container.
Waste Management System in South Africa (Godfrey et al.,2017)
Waste management system in Nigeria
In order to manage the effective waste management in Nigeria, the following recommendation are as follows:
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