Networking Topics

a)

139.145.56.0/22

Subnet Mask: 255.255.252.0

111111111 11111111 11111100 00000000,

The host’s formula is 2 ^{n – 2}

=-2 is network and broadcast address

= 2 ¹⁰

= 1024

126.145.56.0 – 126.145.59.255

The total number of addresses available in this block including all the special addresses: 1024

b)

c)

Total number of address in this subnet is 1024 since is a 139.145.56.0 /22 subnet (Academy, 2017).

IP Range : 139.145.56.0 to 139.145.59.255

Binary: 11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000.

Used IP Range

The starting from 139.145.56.0 to 139.245.57.79.

Free IP range in this subnet: 139.145.57.80 – 139.145.59.255.

IP address in 139.145.58.0 – 255 IP addresses

Used IP’s : 80, Free IP’s : 175 IP addresses

IP address in 139.145.59.0 – 255, Free IP addresses: 255

Total no of Free IP addresses : 430

a)

In the task IP datagram size is 5,600 bytes including header.  The router receive the packet size of 5,600 bytes. The datagram fragmented as below.

Ø The offset value of the first fragment is 0, the fragment length is 1500; this fragments    involves 20 bytes for scarcely modified original IP header.

Ø The offset valve of second fragment is 185(185 x 8 = 1480), in which the data portion initialize 1480 bytes into the original IP datagram for this fragment. The second fragment has the length of 1480 bytes, which also involves the further IP header created for second fragment.

Ø The offset value of the third fragment is 370(370 x 8 = 2960), in which the data portion of third fragment initialize at 2960 into the original IP datagram. The third fragments has a length of 1500 which includes that further IP header is created for third fragment.

Ø The fourth fragment’s offset value is 612(612 x 8 = 4896), in which the data portion of fourth fragments initialize at 4440 bytes into the original IP datagram. The fourth fragments has a length of700 bytes; this includes the further IP header created for fourth fragments. When the size of the original IP datagram is determined which is received by the last fragment then only it occurs.

Ø In the last fragment the fragment offset is given 4896 bytes data offset into the original IP datagram. You get 5120 bytes by the adding the data byte from last fragments (704 = 684 – 20), IP header is made equal to the size of the original IP datagram by adding 20 bytes (4896 + 704 + 20 = 5600).

c)

The reason that the overall length is increased by 60 is because three additional IP headers were created, one for each fragment after the first fragment (Price-Evans, 2017).

a)

The Autonomous systems is a domain which contains the multiple networks with the intra-domain networks.one autonomous system will exchange the routing information to another autonomous system for the communication. Manager enterprise networks divided into Autonomous Systems (i.e Internet). The inter-domain used to communicate between different networks which means the different domains it also called as autonomous system.one autonomous system to another autonomous systems routing is called as inter-domain routing. BGP protocol is an example for inter-domain protocols. Whereas the intra-domain routing used to communicate between the company own network.

Example: the company uses the RIP, EIGRP, OSPF protocols to communicate within their different networks.

b)

Major routing protocols

Ø The major protocols used in the small and enterprises networks RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, BGP and ISIS.

Why inter-domain/intra-domain protocols

Ø The internet have many networks which split into different domain. Each domain contains set of networks (Techgenix.com, 2017).

Ø To communicate with all set of networks the communication to be established between the different domains, so we need to inter-domain protocols to be used.

Ø Intra-domain protocol used within the autonomous systems and makes the communication on different networks within the autonomous system (i.e RIP, OSPF,etc..) which functions within the autonomous system or within the domain.

c)

There are static and dynamic routing protocols used every network. Implementing static routes in the environment have complex and create much manual actions and complex to identify the issue when it occurs. The dynamic routing protocols used most of the environment to avoid the complexity of the above said issues (Tcpipguide.com, 2017). Even the dynamic protocols have some issue in the method which is routing loop issue, performance issue, delay in the networks update, break of the network topology, etc. routing loop creating the communication issue and affects the network performance of entire environment. Due to the routing loop the traffic will follow to the same repeated source and destination which lead to high utilization of each network device.

Below are the routing methods

Ø Directly connected interface

Ø Static routing

Ø Default routes

Ø Dynamic routing

d)

· Versatility, efficiency and scale are provided by extensible routing in which the evolving service demands are addressed by the user. Extensible routing provides the platform for next generation for routing through which it can keep up the growth in competitive changing market and highly constant whereas embedded routing could be operated in harsh environment by solving power, weight and critical size challenges.

· Extensible routing are attached with gadgets but not attached in the embedded routing.

e)

The basic of Internet routing is challenge between the network administrator who manage and control over the end-to-end paths and the Autonomous Systems (AS). The administrator know the traffic flow on the complete environment. To fix the many issue in the network autonomous system offers flexible routing control across multiple routing domains. The third party performs as routing as a service outside the forwarding infrastructure. Not like the current routing methods, ductility in route customization is allowed by renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) during remaining are reasonably scalable. Higher level control plane are multiplexes by RAS and virtual machine has been given access. While other elements could be used when forwarding infrastructure is called by this approach which support higher level control interface.

IPv6 has version number of 6 whereas IPv4 is 4. The size of hop filed is 8bits.the hop limit is based on the maximum number of links the IPv6 packet traversed. The source and destination IP address has 128 bits length. The extension headers and the upper layer PDU together with Payload Length field.

Note: source & destination address are worth 1 mark together