Pierre Bourdieu’s Concepts Of Cultural Capital, Social Capital, And Habitus: Implications For Feminist Ideologies

Cultural Capital and its Significance in Feminist Theories

Discuss about the Journal of Political Science Education.

Pierre Bourdieu considered as one of the pioneering figures in Sociology has given the theory of Habitus and forwarded the concepts of Cultural Capital and Social Capital. He stated that along with the economic capital, there also exists some other type of capital, which is the Social capital, and the Cultural capital and both play decisive role in determining the social status and role of the individual. While Karl Marx was only interested in analyzing the economic aspect of a person’s possession, Bourdieu was of the view that a person may possess a number of capitals apart from monetary determinants. He stated that the knowledge and skills, which are important attributes in deciding the future of an individual, might enable the person to acquire more wealth. Similarly, the networks and contacts, which a person possesses, might enable the person to rise higher in the society. These are examples of cultural capital and social capital. The feminist ideology concerns itself with determining the emancipation of women from the poor economic and social setting where they are forced to live. There are many variants of feminist ideologies and each ideology is distinct from each other based on the causes and approach. Although Bourdieu has not written any of his theories based on a gender specific approach, still some of his concepts can be very easily incorporated into the feminist ideologies. The incorporation of his theories into the feminist ideologies would not just be beneficial for the feminist research scholars but also from a sociological perspective, as the new theory, which will emerge, will present altogether new insights and approaches as well as a new narrative to further facilitate the feminist movement. The feminist movement can be developed further by incorporating the concepts of social capital, cultural capital and the habitus. The dynamics of the feminist movement can be further consolidated by the analysis of the concepts of capital as well as the habitus concepts. The concepts to further consolidate the position of the feminist movement and to give further impetus to the feminist movement. The essay analyses the concepts espoused by Pierre Bourdieu such as the Social capital, the cultural capital and the theory of Habitus. These theories are then analyzed as to how significant they are to the feminist ideologies. The juxtaposition of these theories and concepts has been done by elaborating the entire concepts and theories of Bourdieu as well as understanding the Feminist ideology and the different forms of feminism. The analysis is done by contrasting the theories of Bourdieu and the feminist ideology and finding the common meeting grounds amongst the two theories.

Social Capital and its Potential for Women’s Empowerment

Pierre Bourdieu propounded the concept of cultural capital. In this concept, he stated that along with the concept of economic capital, there exist other types of capital such as cultural capital and social capital. Cultural capital is the assets, which provides the person a form of social mobility. The social mobility allows the person to move forward in the social hierarchy (Bourdieu, 2018). The cultural capital are the pre-existing knowledge and intellectual capabilities which are present in a person and which enable the person to exercise his or her mental abilities for the benefit  of the self as well the society of which the individual is a part (Decoteau, 2016). The cultural capital is considered as an asset for the society because it is to the society’s benefit that the members of the society are knowledgeable and have deep and profound knowledge about the important aspects of the society. Pierre Bourdieu stated that culture could be of three types. These are – 1. Institutionalized cultural capital- these are the educational or the specialized knowledge, which are present in the intellect and inherent knowledge base of a person.These, cannot be seen from an external perspective but can be observed by engaging the person in dialogue and discussion. The person who possesses a profound Institutionalized cultural capital is considered as an asset for the organization of which they are a part, 2. The embodied cultural capital is the skills and talents, which the person possesses. It can be seen and felt by the other people through the work of arts, music compositions, and sport activities. These talents are highly respected and held highly in the society 3. The objectified cultural capital- these are the possessions of the person which help the person to achieve the desired outcome within a stipulated time period. These are not counted as material objects or capital goods rather they are the investments, which help the person rise higher in the societal hierarchy (Mahar & Bourdieu, 2016). The Cultural Capital can turn out to be an important factor in the feminist theory as these sources of capital can be used to figure the number of women who possess the wealth of knowledge as well as the technical skills. By utilizing these knowledge and skills, the women can open avenues of growth and development.

According to Bordieu, the Social Capital is the relationship networks prevalent among the people and the networks enable the person to stay connected with the other people in the society. The Social Capital concept was given by Pierre Bourdieu and was further elaborated by Robert Putnam. Putnam stated that the Social Capital has three components, which are the moral obligations and norms, social values that include the trust and the social networks. The social networks are generally of the type of voluntary associations and the people voluntarily agree upon joining the institutions as per their choice and preference (Shusterman, 2015). The trust factor in the organizational terminology is not the usual definition of trust but refers to the generalized concept of trust, which emphasizes the fact that trust is based on consensus. The voluntary associations, trade unions, political parties and the communities, which are based on a common preference such as fan clubs and sports club fan base, are the examples of social capital. The voluntary associations play an important role in the highlighting of the main issues which need to be put forward to garner the attention of the politicians (Wacquant & Akçao?lum 2017).  The Social Capital can be utilized by the women to accentuate their position in the society and to boost their possession of Cultural capital. The Social Capital remains one of the most underutilized aspects of the women’s possession as the large social contacts which they possess goes wasted. The feminist movement can incorporate the social capital possessed by women by spreading awareness amongst the women to help each other and utilize the Social Capital.

Habitus Theory and its Relevance to Feminist Research

Bourdieu stated that the Habitus refers to the arrangement of a person in a social setting. This setting was based upon the experience as well as the perception of the person about the social environment wherein he or she resides at. The Habitus analyses the tendencies, which shape the perceptions of the people regarding the society and how the people use these perceptions to react to the social duties. The people generally associate with the other people who have some similar skill set or background such as similar social class, religion, nationality, ethnicity and other similar social setting. The Habitus theory of Bourdieu was based on the concept of structuralism in literary theory. Bourdieu argues that the society can include a number of spaces and institutions. The individual has the choice to enter the organization or an institution because of the ability to practice voluntary association. The ability to exercise voluntary association enables the person to freely choose the requisite group or association, which the person wishes to join. The habitus is the perceived experience of the person, which is experienced once the person is at a social setting. The person is valued by the organization or the society on the basis of his or her possession of cultural capital, social capital or economic capital, all of which makes up his/her symbolic capital (Nowicka, 2015). More the symbolic capital of a person, more respect and value, the person gets in a society. A person can acquire or earn the cultural, social or economic capital. The habitus enables the person to increase the networks with the other people around him. The habitus can also be observed from a feminist perspective by analyzing the experience of the women in the social setting. The interactions, which they perform with the other members of the society, enable the researcher to analyze the habitus of the women. The women are given preference by the other members of the society based on their possession of the cultural capital, the social capital or the emotional capital. The more capital the person has in a society, the more is the person able to exert symbolic capital in the society. The habitus therefore enables the researcher to understand and comprehend the situations or experiences, which determine how the person is going to be perceived and treated in the society. Bourdieu accepted that the economic capital plays the most important part in the society but he also stated that the cultural capital and the social capital are no less in quality (Susen, 2106). They are also respected and treated with veneration (Levinson, 2015). The person who possesses great knowledge or skill about a certain discipline is able to gather economic capital based on the possession of the cultural capital. Similarly, the person who has great social capital, which is the person has contact with the majority ofthe members of the society, is able to prosper and progress faster compared to the person lacking social capital. Therefore, the three capital sources- social capital, cultural capital and economic capital play important role in determining the habitus of an individual (Shammas & Sandberg, 2016). The habitus can be utilized for the feminist theories by incorporating the experiences of the women in the society and utilizing these experiences to come to an analysis regarding the condition of women in the society. Therefore habitus can help the researcher to figure the experiences of the women from the perspectives of the women. This will also enable the feminist theory to be more accurate and streamlined in its approach and usage.

The feminist ideologies range from supporting the causes of women emancipation and the rights and privileges of the women to fighting for equal pay and gender rights across the world. The feminist movements are involved in a number of political and social environmental settings and all have a common objective that is to define, comprehend and incorporate the equality of the women in all the different social, economic and political settings. The feminist activists aim to establish equal opportunities and avenues for the women and to establish the fact that women are equal to men. The Feminist movements have fought for the rights of the women all over the world . The feminists demand a number of rights for women which includes the right to freedom, the right to education, the right to vote, the right to be given equal salary as compared to the men, the right to enter contracts, the right to marriage and enter into a relationship with the partner of their choice, the right to take maternity leave and the right to privacy. The feminists also have in their policy framework the need to safeguard women from rape, domestic violence, protection against genital mutilation and domestic violence. The right to choose a dress is also a pressing topic in their agenda (Connell, 2015). The women’s movements have become extremely important to highlight the societal changes, which are going on for a long period. The advent of industrialization meant that the people who were employed in the rural setup move out of the feudal lands and move into the cities and towns in order to get employment in the newly established industries and companies. The new employment opportunities resulted in the breaking up of the traditional joint family system and with the advent of time, the nuclear families became more common. The patriarchal family pattern was questioned and women became more active in demanding their rights and privileges. The women’s rights were increasingly being demanded in the last decade of the twentieth century. The efforts of the previous feminists have yielded results and it is due to their efforts due to which the women have been given certain rights and advantages which were not given to them earlier (Nayak, 2017). The feminist ideologies have developed because of the numerous feminist movements, which have occurred over the years, and the feminists seek to establish parity among the different segments of the society such that women are not discriminated against in any social institution. The main criticisms of the feminist have been that the feminist ideologies have been created on the basis of supporting a particular ethnicity and that the feminist ideologies do not include the multicultural aspects of feminism such as those relating to black feminism and cross-cultural feminism.

The initial feminist movement occurred in the 19^thcenture when the women activists, particularly in Europe and North America raised their voices against the injustices meted out to them such as denial of the basic right to education and employment opportunities. The early phase feminist movement emphasized on getting the equal pay and securing the property rights for women as well as getting the right to education and employment opportunities (Gold, 2016). The achievements of the early phase of the feminists have been the passing of the UK Custody of Infants Act of 1839, which established the right for women to take access of their child. Subsequently, the Married Women’s Property Act was passed in 1870 in the United Kingdom, which gave the married women right to possess property. The pressing topic of getting right to vote for the women also gathered momentum during this period. The feminists achieved women suffrage for the first time in 1884 when the British Government passed the legislation to legalize the women suffrage. The other rights such as demanding the sexual, economic and reproductive rights were also demanded by the feminists during the time (De Lauretis, 2018).

There are numerous feminist theories, which define the feminist ideologies from an altogether different perspective. These theories take into account different perspective, which are essential in understanding the feminist issues. The Mainstream Feminists involve the issues, which deal with the feminist issues from a very clear feminist perspective and do not include the socialist or radical ideologies. The Mainstream Feminists follow the traditional school of feminist thought and attempt to introduce political and social reforms to uplift the conditions of the women. The Mainstream Feminist are also referred to as Bourgeois Feminism by Angela Davis (Cohen, & Jackson, 2016). The Anarchist Feminist Movement juxtaposes the anarchism ideology with that of feminism and it holds the ideology that patriarchy has been imposed on the women by the male hegemonic dominance. The Anarchist are of the opinion that struggle against patriarchy is an important part of their movement. The Black Feminism hold the view that the evil attributes of sexism, racism and discrimination based on class are inter-connected with each other. The Cultural Feminists hold the ideology the difference between men and women are socially construed and imposed upon the women (Dekel, 2014). They agree that the biological differences among the sexes are existing but the imbalance among the sexes is not due to the biological differences, rather it is due to the psychological imposition on the mentality of the people that male and female are different from each other. The Cultural Feminists are of the opinion that the female qualities are undervalued in the society and the male qualities are highlighted and appreciated in an unjust manner. The Ecofeminist ideology links the topic of ecology with Feminism. The Ecofeminists are of the opinion that the subjugation of the women is related with the environmental degradation and impact of global warming. They hold the view that due to patriarchy and the allocation of the factors of production to the men resulted in the deterioration of the environment. They argue that the men are directly responsible for the current turmoil afflicting the world. The French Feminists emphasize more on the philosophical and literary resources rather than on the support for ideologies, which lack a base. The Liberal Feminists hold the opinion that the equality of the sexes can be brought about by reformation of the existing social conditions (Fischer & Dolezal, 2018). It is observed that liberal feminism overlaps with mainstream feminism and there exists minimal differences between the two schools of thought. Libertarian Feminism fights for the freedom of women from the interference in their affairs by the men. The women are to the custodian of their own affairs and the men regarding the everyday decisions of their lives must not influence them. The Multiracial Feminists focus more on the issues, which affects the women belonging from the colored background such as the Blacks and the Asians. They take into consideration all the aspects of the society wherein the colored women live in and how each factor affects the women. The Post-Structural Feminists analyses the Feminist issues by juxtaposing the concepts of psychoanalysis, linguistics and the political ideology of Marx and later Marxists. The Postcolonial feminists’ focus on the issues, which have arisen after the end of the colonial period such as migration, slavery and oppression. The Postmodern feminists conjoin the postmodern and the post-structural theories in their analysis and hold the view that the concept of sex has been infused and constructed through language. The Radical Feminists hold the radical viewpoint that they have been victimized due to the oppressive dominant patriarchal setting of the society. They are of the view that the major issues afflicting the women is due all due to the subjugation of women by the men. They hold the opinion that the only way to solve the issues of women is for the women to take up the issues themselves and solve them by their own efforts (Exum, 2015). According to the radical feminists, it is no point depending on the males and their agenda is to uproot the patriarchal set up completely. The Separatist Feminist Theory holds the view that women should not enter into any type of heterosexual relationships. It is closely related to the Lesbian Feminist ideology, which states that the women should enter into relationships with only women. The feminist ideologies even though have different perspectives, all have the similar agreed upon point that women have been deprived of some of the most basic of human rights and that the women are exploited (Uteng & Cresswell, 2016). Almost all the feminist ideologies are of the opinion that the women are exploited against due to the patriarchal set up of the society and it is important to provide a more egalitarian setup, which enables the women to rise up in the society. The administrative as well as the judicial authorities must ensure that the women are given the rights so that a more egalitarian society is established which gives equal rights and privileges to the women. The feminist movement is fighting for the justification of providing rights and freedom to the women and has representations in various international bodies such as the United Nations as well as the International Monetary Fund (Smith, 2017).

Feminist theories have incorporated the theories of many thinkers and intellects. When it comes to the French Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, his theories have somewhat escaped the attention of the feminist intellectuals. Bourdieu’s main concepts of cultural and social capital as well as his concept of habitus can prove important for the feminists to present their demands and ideas in a more innovative and theoretical manner. In his academic career, Bourdieu questioned the process of theory and empirical work. He stated that research, which does not include theory, is useless and similar is the case when theory is done without any research. The main concept propounded by Bourdieu is capital and according to him, the social structure is created by the distribution of capital and its different types. Capital does not necessarily mean monetary capital or finances but can also be in the form of cultural and social capital. Bourdieu considered many different types of capital such as economic, which meant the financial resources, the social capital, which was the social connections, the cultural capital, which was the taste and preferences of the person, the symbolic capital which meant the status and position of the person (Wagner & McLaughlin, 2015). According to Bourdieu, women do not possess capital rather they are a form of symbolic capital as the possession of women can increase the status of the person as well as the family. Feminist scholars can incorporate the concepts of capital such as cultural capital, symbolic capital and social capital to define the position and achievements of the women in respect to Bourdieu’s principles (King, 2016). The academic achievements of women, which enable them to achieve higher grades and better employment opportunities, can be regarded as cultural capital. The concepts of class and gender as has been given by Bourdieu can be important criteria for determining the issues raised by feminist movement, they can relate to the discrimination against the class of women in particular, and how to protest against the injustices committed against them. The women can be described as belonging to a special class and possessing the emotional capital which is a special type of cultural capital present in them. This capital enables them to become aware about the plight of the other peer groups and therefore, raise the issue in a way, which best suits them. The issue can be presented by identifying the aspects of capital, which the women are possessing and how despite the fact that possessing the cultural capital of knowledge and excelling in the academics, they are not given the opportunities to progress further in their career, and as a result are not able to secure employment opportunities. It has also been observed that the working women face the dilemma of whether to devote maximum effort to their job or to dedicate majority of their time and energy to the family (Hirschmann, 2016). The women as such are not able to fully realize the value of their cultural capital and as a result are not able to succeed in their careers. The men who have the luxury of networks and associations with groups secure the right to be promoted in the higher positions of the organization. The women despite having superior cultural capital lag behind and are not able to reach the higher echelons of the organizational setup (Giraldo, 2016). As such, the women get victimized by the vicious circle and the generalized trust is lost in the organizational running of the society. The women can realize their class-consciousness and raise their voices against the injustices meted out to them (McDowell, 2018). The voices raised by them can highlight the issue on the parameters of the concept given by Bourdieu. These concepts can also be analyzed to observe the positioning of the women in the structure of the organization or society where they live or work. This was referred to as habitus by Bourdieu (Costa & Murphy, 2015) . The habitus is the accumulation of the social, economic and the cultural capital of Bourdieu and all these capital types enable the person to achieve the desired outcome of succeeding in the given habitus. Bourdieu argued that the different types of capital are all important for the objective of achieving success but the economic capital is the most important factor, which helps the individual, survives in the society. The women being subjugated to the inferior positions and not being given the right to education and higher employment opportunities therefore the women are not able to secure the top level positions in the habitus of which they form a part. The feminist movement can fully derive new meaning and insights from the theories propounded by Pierre Bourdieu and these theories can enable the feminist scholars to present their argument in a more comprehensive and innovative manner to the public. The people can analyse the issues affecting women from the parameters given by Bourdieu and how it affects them in their emotional well-being. The feminist scholars have worked with the principles of Marxist ideologies and the Structuralist philosophies. Bourdieu’s concepts are also largely aligned with the structuralist theory and it would be easier for the feminist scholars who support the structuralist philosophy to present their cause in a manner wherein the terminologies stated by Bourdieu can be elaborately used (Haavind, 2015). The Social Capital of the women is also a significant factor, which enables them to become successful or get their work done quickly. However, not all the women have access to the social capital, therefore the men utilize their social capital and are able to secure positions of strength in the organizations. The understanding of the habitus is acquired through living in the reality and observing the daily happenings in the social setting. The women can explain their ordeals through the detailing of their habitus and then juxtaposing it with the quantity and quality of the social, economic and cultural capital, which they might or might not possess. One of the key aspects where the feminists can raise their voice and incorporate the theories of Bourdieu is the women not getting the cultural and the social capital along with the economic capital. The feminist scholars can also demand the inclusion of the cultural and the social capital to the economic capital (Maier, 2016). The women who do not have access to the economic capital in turn also do not have access to the social and the cultural capital. It therefore, becomes important for the feminist scholar to incorporate the true essence of Bourdieu’s concepts to the feminist theories. The analysis of Pierre Bourdieu can also be done by juxtaposing his theories to the ethnic and the racial sub-divisions. The availability of the social capital and the cultural capital can vary from one place to another and from one ethnic community to another ethnic community. Some groups might possess an abundance of the social and cultural capitals while other groups might not. The availability of the all the capitals is more in the western developed countries of Europe and North America whereas the availability of cultural and social capital resources is less in the African and Asian countries (Crenshaw, 2018). The feminist scholars can incorporate these phenomenons into their analysis and can present their arguments in a linear form than the normal presentation of arguments. The scholars like Chinua Achebe and Julia Kristeva, who have written extensively about the women’s condition in Africa, can incorporate the phenomenon of cultural and social capital in their theories (Randolph, 2017). Bourdieu’s theories even if they have been written from non-gendered perspectives can be utilized and researched to incorporate them in the feminist theories. The feminist theories should utilize the concept of habitus to analyse the problems faced by all the women across various ethnic lines. The habitus or the perceived realization of an American woman might be similar on some aspects with that of a Chinese woman and might differ on the other aspects (Enszer & Beins, 2018). Detailed over viewing of the Habitus of the individuals will enable the feminist scholars to gain new insights into the demographic variation of the problems faced by women. The similar problems, which they face like the sacrificing of the career for the welfare of the family, might be investigated through the perspectives of social, cultural and economic capitals and how deprivation of these resources affects them in the long run (Franke, 2016). The feminist scholars can infuse the theories of Bourdieu and mix and align them with the existing theories of feminism and in doing so, new theories might arise which will further give an edge to the women’s movement which  are taking place worldwide (Byerly, 2017). The essence of new theories is that they have the potential to shape the future of humanity. The ideas of Karl Marx and Albert Einstein have done so in the past and it will be no wonder if new theories can be derived by adjoining the common meeting grounds of feminist theories along with the theories given by Bourdieu. There is a great need to align the different types of feminist theories because the existence of many different feminist perspectives deviates the attention of the individual from the main issues affecting women (Clayton, 2018). The feminist scholars can do so by incorporating the ideology of Bourdieu and juxtaposing them with the modern theories of feminism and explaining how these theories are helpful in explaining the present situation of women.

From the above analysis, it is observed that the theories and concepts stated by Pierre Bourdieu are very much relevant in the global scenario and the concepts of cultural capital and social capital along with the economic capital determine the position of a person in the society. Bourdieu differed from the analysis of Karl Marx and stated that the capital can also be of the other types such as social capital and cultural capital, which does not necessarily mean the monetary aspects are necessary to evaluate a person’s positioning in the society. Rather, the strength of the knowledge and skills as well as the contacts the person has with the other people of the society  determine the amount of status the person is about to obtain in the future. The feminist movement, which is driven by the motive of self-determination and emancipation of women, can in the most likelihood gain from the concepts given by Bourdieu. The concepts given by Pierre Bourdieu can be used to shape the feminist movement in the present world. The feminist movement can be analyzed from the perspective of Bourdieu’s concepts and then these concepts along with the theory presented by Bourdieu can be assessed and evaluated to give further impetus to the feminist movement. Although, the theory propounded by Bourdieu was not written in a gender-specific manner, but it can be observed that the theory of Bourdieu can be used to not only understand the social status of women in particular but also to determine the factors, which are shaping the present form of deprivation afflicting the women. The women are also subjugated to various forms of deprivation such as denying them the right to education and employment opportunities. Women spend the most amount of time doing household chores and therefore are deprived from the chance to be acquainted with new people and contacts. The women’s condition is also determined by their ethnicity and place of origin. The women who are in Africa and interior regions of Asia are the most deprived among the other group of women. The various forms of feminist movement can derive crucial knowledge and inputs from the theory given by Bourdieu. The limitations of the usage of the theories propounded by Bourdieu in feminism are that these theories are too rigid in their approach and have been written in a gender- less manner. Therefore, changing them to fit the norms of the feminist ideology becomes a tedious process altogether. The process of incorporating the theories of Bourdieu in Feminist Theories requires the expertise of an able theoretical scholar. The juxtaposition of the two theories requires a lot of research and surveys to actually figure out the data regarding the amount of social and cultural capital possessed by the women. The feminist scholars who decide to research on the viability of incorporating Bourdieu’s work in the feminist framework need to be fully adept at understanding and comprehending the thinking process of Bourdieu. Hence, these are the factors, which emphasize on the theoretical relevance of Bourdieu in the Feminist ideologies.

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