Aim of this study is to develop understanding of renewable energy sources as a key issue in environmental sustainability. 10 academic sources (including peer to peer reviewed journal articles, books and newspapers) were identified that provided key insights into renewable sources of energy that is used to prepare an annotated bibliography, followed by the development of a short research paper incorporating the key findings.
Search for the journal articles was made on NCBI PubMed Database using the keywords ‘Renewable Energy’ and selected journals published in the last 5 years.
1. The authors study the utility of palm oil mill effluents (POME) as an alternative source of renewable energy in this journal article. According to the authors, the effluents from the palm oil mills as well as its byproducts causes environmental problems near the oil mills, and thus using the extract as a source of energy provides a double benefit of renewable energy plus the protection of the environment. According to the authors, the POME (which is a thick brownish liquid) has high content of grease, oil and solids and have a high Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD value wich makes it an effective energy source. Even though POME is not toxic in nature, discharge of untreated POME can adversely affect the aquatic ecosystems due to the high COD and BOD. Thus ithe study supports that POME as a renewable source of energy can help environmental conservation and sustainable development.
2. In this study, the authors assessed the utility of biomass (such as microalgae, grass, yeast and renewable biomass substrates) as a renewable energy source. The authors point out that using biomass as an energy source can help to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases through the reduced utilization of fossil fuels and can also help waste management practices in rapidly urbanizing areas. Authors also suggested that biodiesel and bioethanol can be combined with the traditional fossil fuels to provide a substitute fuel that can be used in the traditional combustion engines. However, the authors also pointed out that one of the most important consideration in the usage of biomass as alternate source of energy is the conversion of biomass into the combustible form which might need additional energy, depending on the type of biomass used. However still, it can be implied that biomass still serve as a potential source of alternative energy.
3. In this paper, the authors studied the utility of Biogas as an alternate source of energy for developing countries. According to the authors, almost three billion people across the developing countries still depend on biomass in the form of wood, animal dung and crop residues as an energy source. Using this energy source of environmental, health and social problems, however, converting the biomass to biogas can overcome this problem and provide a cleaner source of energy for these countries. According to the authors, regular waste products such as kitchen waste, animal manure, crop by byproducts and green waste can be converted to biogas through anaerobic digestion in special reservoirs. The authors also pointed out that such technology can be very expensive to install and hence it can be difficult to develop in remote communities. In such scenarios, it can be useful when funding support is provided by the government in the development of this technology.
4. In this journal article, the authors studied the potential of biodiesel as an alternative source of renewable energy. The authors pointed out that the different forms of biodiesel have similar functional properties compared to the conventional diesel making them viable replacements for the fossil fuel for ignition engines. Additionally, the use of biodiesel also as some added advantages such as lower emission of Carbon Monoxide and Hydro Carbons, overall reduction in the environmental pollution through the reuse of organic waste and provide a cheap source of renewable energy. Authors also suggested that in countries where livestock rearing is very common, the production of biodiesel is very convenient due to the plentiful supply of organic waste from the farms. Authors also proposed that biodiesel can also be made from mustard oil, soybean oil,. Cottonseed oil, coconut, micro algae, rubber seed, sesame, seed, mosna oil, castor, linseed oil, neem, jatropha and karanja.
5. In this paper the authors studied the potential of harvesting solar energy in the cities. The author studied the urban morphology of the Greater London area to find if the city structures can be used to optimize the harvest of solar energy. Their studies showed that in the city buildings, usage of solar panels in the roofs or rooftops can increase the harvest yield of solar energy by 9% while using solar panels on the facades can increase the yield by about 45%. Based on such findings the authors also provided recommendations for urban designing in a way that can maximize the harvest of solar energy, such as the planning of the roof, distance between buildings, model of façade, average building height and area coverage of the building. From the study it can be implied that through effective design of the building and proper use of solar panels the harvest of solar energy can be significantly improved in the urban areas.
6. In this study, the authors studied the utility of methane as an alternative fuel source. The authors also studied the utility of methanogens (a group of anaerobic archaea) in the production of methane. According to the authors, these archaea produces methane and anerobically reduces carbon dioxide and are commonly found in the environment. It is also highlighted that these methanogens are responsible for the production of 71% of the atmospheric methane (which is also a powerful greenhouse gas). It was proposed by the authors that by anaerobically digesting organic wastes such as animal manure or dung, sewages from households, waste food, methane can be produced, which is the bulk of the biogas. The authors also suggested that the rate of anaerobic digestion (that is the conversion of the organic substrate into methane) can be accelerated using conductive materials and electrically active cathodes to stimulate the process and thus optimize the production of methane.
7. The authors in this paper identified a completely new approach in the extraction of renewable energy. According to the authors, in the process of natural evaporation can create significant amount of energy which is equivalent to other sources of renewable energy such as wind energy and hydro electric energy. The authors suggested that in the United States alone, about 325 Giga Watt of energy can be harvested from the evaporation of water from open water surfaces. Additionally, because of the large specific heat capacity of water, excess energy can be stored in the water itself which can help to improve the reliability of the energy as well as reducing its intermittency. Thus the authors suggested that more research should be done to find materials and equipments that can harness the energy from the evaporation of water thus significantly helping the development of renewable energy resources.
8. In this article the author discusses the affordable resources of renewable energy. According to the author, the use of renewable energy is on a rising trend using low carbon alternatives of fuel and development in technology. The author pointed out to a recent study by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) that found renewable energy are becoming cheaper every year and can provide a considerable cheaper source of electricity compared to traditional forms of fuels. According to the author, the most significant sources of energy in this aspect are: solar and wind energy (USD 0.06 per kWh for wind energy and USD 0.04 per kWh for solar energy) and tidal energy. The authors supported that the costs of electricity from these sources of energy were considerably lower compared to the use of fossil fuels to generate electricity (costing about USD 0.05 to 0.17 per kWh). Additionally, the costs of energy from wind and solar farms can further reduce the price of electricity in the next 2 years (to USD 0.03 per kWh).
9. This page by the International Energy Agency provides information regarding the usage of renewable energy throughout the world. According to their report, the use of renewable energy have increased sharply over the years which was triggered due to a decline in the costs of equipments needed to harness the energy, such as photovoltaic cells and windmills. Their study projects that by 2022, the generation of renewable energy will increase by one third of its current utilization. The authors however pointed out that the use of renewable emergy in the generation of heat and in transportation are still very inadequate. This shows the necessity of increasing the utilization of renewable sources of energy in transportation and vehicles.
10. In this news article, the author proposed that solar energy is the fastest growing source of renewable energy and that renewable sources of energy currently amounts to one thirds of the new power added to the world’s grid, showing the fast increase in the trend. The author predicts that in the next five years, the usage of solar energy wills surpass any other form of renewable energy such as wind energy, hydroelectricity and biomass/biogas/biooil. The authors suggested that solar energy has a huge potential of grown over the next few years and countires like China and India, who are already investing in solar energy harvesting technology will dominate the growth in solar energy usage. This shows a positive development in the market and provides a promising future of the renewable energy usage.
References:
Aziz, N. I. H. A., & Hanafiah, M. M. (2017). The potential of palm oil mill effluent (POME) as a renewable energy source. Journal of Green Energy, 1(2), 323-346.
Cavusoglu, A. H., Chen, X., Gentine, P., & Sahin, O. (2017). Potential for natural evaporation as a reliable renewable energy resource. Nature communications, 8(1), 617.
Ekpeni, L. E., Benyounis, K. Y., Nkem-Ekpeni, F., Stokes, J., & Olabi, A. G. (2014). Energy diversity through renewable energy source (RES)–a case study of biomass. Energy Procedia, 61, 1740-1747.
Evans, S. (2018). What are the cheapest renewable energy sources? – Power Technology. Retrieved from https://www.power-technology.com/features/cheapest-renewable-energy-sources/
Habibullah, M., Masjuki, H. H., Kalam, M. A., Rahman, S. A., Mofijur, M., Mobarak, H. M., & Ashraful, A. M. (2015). Potential of biodiesel as a renewable energy source in Bangladesh. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50, 819-834.
Holmes, D. E., & Smith, J. A. (2016). Biologically produced methane as a renewable energy source. In Advances in applied microbiology (Vol. 97, pp. 1-61). Academic Press.
iea.org. (2018). Renewables: Our work. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/topics/renewables/
Sarralde, J. J., Quinn, D. J., Wiesmann, D., & Steemers, K. (2015). Solar energy and urban morphology: Scenarios for increasing the renewable energy potential of neighbourhoods in London. Renewable Energy, 73, 10-17.
Surendra, K. C., Takara, D., Hashimoto, A. G., & Khanal, S. K. (2014). Biogas as a sustainable energy source for developing countries: Opportunities and challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 31, 846-859.
Vaughan, A. (2017). Time to shine: Solar power is fastest-growing source of new energy. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/04/solar-power-renewables-international-energy-agency
Renewable energy is a significant aspect of environmental sustainability and sustainable development (Ellabban et al., 2014). The significance of renewable and clearn energy source becomes apparent under the context of the environmental impact due to the usage of non renewable sources of energy such as fossil fuels which has adverse effect on the environment due to emission of greenhouse gases (Jebli et al., 2016; Fais et al., 2016). Moreover, with the gradual depletion of the fossil fuel reservoirs, a need for alternative sources of emery becomes even more necessary to keep up with the ever increasing need for energy to fuel the development of our civilization (Capellán-Pérez et al., 2014; McGlade & Ekins, 2015).
From the review of literature, several important sources of energy could be identified as well as strategies to maximize the utilization of different renewable energy. These key findings are discussed below:
Palm Oil Effluents:
Palm Oil Mill Effluents (POME): Studies by Aziz et al (2017) showed that effluents from the palm oil mills are viable sources of renewable energy as it has high chemical oxygen demand as well as biological oxygen demand. Using this form of resource can provide the Palm Oil industry a viable source of energy as well as income as the fuel can be barreled as sold to other industries and serve as an alternative fuel source apart from helping to reuse the waste from the palm oil mills. This has also been supported by other studies that show how palm tree products can be energy rich and a good source of fuel (Ahmed et al., 2015; Garcia-Nunez et al., 2016).
Ekpeni et al. (2014) suggested that biomass can be a potentially viable source of energy in many developing countries, and animal waste as well as a variety of plant products can be used to prepare biomass. Thus biomass can be another important source of renewable energy. Moreover, biomass can be used to make other forms of biofuels such as biogas or biodiesel. The significance of biogas was studied by Surendra et al. (2014) who showed that biomass can easily be used in the development of biogas using variety of plant products as well as animal waste. Through the anaerobic digestion of the organic matter gases such as methane can be produced which are viable forms of renewable energy. According to Holmes et al. (2016), methanogens can be used to successfully produce methane from the organic waste products collected from households and farms to undergo anaerobic digestion. The process can be accelerated further using conductive materials and electrodes. Setting such equipments can be expensive and through the help of funding, this system can be successfully implemented (Surendra et al., 2014). Similarly, biodiesels can be produced from biomass which can be used in ignition engines and thus provide alternatives to fossil fues in ignition engines (such as those used in transportation) (Pratama et al., 2017; Gómez et al., 2015).
Solar Energy:
The use of solar energy as a renewable source of energy is increasing globally. The increase in the use of this form of energy is significantly supported by technological advances that have helped to reduce the costs of equipments needed to harness solar energy as well as reduce the cost of harnessing the solar energy, thus providing a much cheaper solution for alternative energy source (Vaughan, 2017; Lewis, 2016). Evans (2018) also supported that solar energy is one of the cheapest forms of renewable energy as of now. Sarralde et al. (2015) proposed that the utilization of solar energy in an urban setup can be further optimized by effective planning and designing of cities and using solar panels on vantage locations such as the rooftops and façade, thus helping to harvest more solar energy from the solar panels. Reports by International Energy Agency also pointed out that usage of renewable energy is increasing globally and most significantly in the solar energy sector (Najafi et al., 2015; Energy Information Administration, 2016).
Studies by IEA show that even though these is an increase in the use of renewable energy, globally, the usage of this form of energy particularly in the automobiles and vehicles are inadequate. Some authors havge proposed that the reduced or limited usage is mainly because the compatibility of alternative fuels in the ignition engines and the possible adverse effects on the longevity and output of the engines. However studies by Habibullah et al. (2015) showed that biodiesel prepared from various pland and animal products can be safely used in the ignition engines. Thus biodiesels can be a suitable replacement of conventional diesels and can help to increase the utility of renewable energy in automobiles and vehicles (Dharma et al., 2016; Yilmaz & Vigil, 2014).
Methane:
Methane that is produced from anaerobic digestion of biomass can be a good source of renewable energy owing to its energy density. Methanogens can be used to produce methane from farm and household waste and thus also help in waste management and protection of the environment and achieve sustainable development objectives (Stempien et al., 2015; Holmes & Smith, 2016).
Cavusoglu et al. (2017) proposed a novel surce of clean and renewable source of energy which can be researched on. The energy source is a regular phenomenon of water vaporization. The energy that is created while water vaporizes can be equivalent to the energy produced from wind and water. This source provides a new direction for research on renewable energy resources that can be utilized in the future. Moreover, the vast expanses of open water that covers more than 70% of the world’s surface provides a vast reservoir for potential energy source which can be harvested in a safe manner without causing pollution or degradation to the environment thereby supporting sustainable development.
Conclusion:
Thus from the above study it can be concluded that several sources of renewable energy are available which cam help to replace fossil fuel thereby hel[ping to reduce the environmental impact of using the fossil fuels. One of the most significant and promising source is solar energy that is becoming vastly popular and cheap. Along with proper placement of solar panels, optimal energy can be harvested. Moreover, sources such as bio fuels (such as biomass, biogas and bio diesel can be another significant source of energy considering that the organic substrates (plant and animal waste, household waste, organic sewage and agricultural wastes) that is required for their production is abundant. Moreover using these substrates also helps in the management of the waste further reducing the environmental impacts. New technologies can also be developed that can harness energy from water vaporization which provides a potentially equivalent amount of energy generated from wind and water.
References:
Ahmed, Y., Yaakob, Z., Akhtar, P., & Sopian, K. (2015). Production of biogas and performance evaluation of existing treatment processes in palm oil mill effluent (POME). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 42, 1260-1278.
Aziz, N. I. H. A., & Hanafiah, M. M. (2017). The potential of palm oil mill effluent (POME) as a renewable energy source. Journal of Green Energy, 1(2), 323-346.
Capellán-Pérez, I., Mediavilla, M., de Castro, C., Carpintero, Ó., & Miguel, L. J. (2014). Fossil fuel depletion and socio-economic scenarios: An integrated approach. Energy, 77, 641-666.
Cavusoglu, A. H., Chen, X., Gentine, P., & Sahin, O. (2017). Potential for natural evaporation as a reliable renewable energy resource. Nature communications, 8(1), 617.
Dharma, S., Ong, H. C., Masjuki, H. H., Sebayang, A. H., & Silitonga, A. S. (2016). An overview of engine durability and compatibility using biodiesel–bioethanol–diesel blends in compression-ignition engines. Energy conversion and management, 128, 66-81.
Ekpeni, L. E., Benyounis, K. Y., Nkem-Ekpeni, F., Stokes, J., & Olabi, A. G. (2014). Energy diversity through renewable energy source (RES)–a case study of biomass. Energy Procedia, 61, 1740-1747.
Ellabban, O., Abu-Rub, H., & Blaabjerg, F. (2014). Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 39, 748-764.
Energy Information Administration (US), & Government Publications Office (Eds.). (2016). International Energy Outlook 2016: With Projections to 2040. Government Printing Office.
Evans, S. (2018). What are the cheapest renewable energy sources? – Power Technology. Retrieved from https://www.power-technology.com/features/cheapest-renewable-energy-sources/
Fais, B., Sabio, N., & Strachan, N. (2016). The critical role of the industrial sector in reaching long-term emission reduction, energy efficiency and renewable targets. Applied Energy, 162, 699-712.
Garcia-Nunez, J. A., Ramirez-Contreras, N. E., Rodriguez, D. T., Silva-Lora, E., Frear, C. S., Stockle, C., & Garcia-Perez, M. (2016). Evolution of palm oil mills into bio-refineries: literature review on current and potential uses of residual biomass and effluents. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 110, 99-114.
Gómez, M. F., Téllez, A., & Silveira, S. (2015). Exploring the effect of subsidies on small-scale renewable energy solutions in the Brazilian Amazon. Renewable Energy, 83, 1200-1214.
Habibullah, M., Masjuki, H. H., Kalam, M. A., Rahman, S. A., Mofijur, M., Mobarak, H. M., & Ashraful, A. M. (2015). Potential of biodiesel as a renewable energy source in Bangladesh. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50, 819-834.
Holmes, D. E., & Smith, J. A. (2016). Biologically produced methane as a renewable energy source. In Advances in applied microbiology (Vol. 97, pp. 1-61). Academic Press.
iea.org. (2018). Renewables: Our work. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/topics/renewables/
Jebli, M. B., Youssef, S. B., & Ozturk, I. (2016). Testing environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: The role of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and trade in OECD countries. Ecological Indicators, 60, 824-831.
Lewis, N. S. (2016). Research opportunities to advance solar energy utilization. Science, 351(6271), aad1920.
McGlade, C., & Ekins, P. (2015). The geographical distribution of fossil fuels unused when limiting global warming to 2 C. Nature, 517(7533), 187.
Najafi, G., Ghobadian, B., Mamat, R., Yusaf, T., & Azmi, W. H. (2015). Solar energy in Iran: Current state and outlook. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 49, 931-942.
Pratama, Y. W., Purwanto, W. W., Tezuka, T., McLellan, B. C., Hartono, D., Hidayatno, A., & Daud, Y. (2017). Multi-objective optimization of a multiregional electricity system in an archipelagic state: The role of renewable energy in energy system sustainability. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 77, 423-439.
Sarralde, J. J., Quinn, D. J., Wiesmann, D., & Steemers, K. (2015). Solar energy and urban morphology: Scenarios for increasing the renewable energy potential of neighbourhoods in London. Renewable Energy, 73, 10-17.
Stempien, J. P., Ni, M., Sun, Q., & Chan, S. H. (2015). Production of sustainable methane from renewable energy and captured carbon dioxide with the use of Solid Oxide Electrolyzer: a thermodynamic assessment. Energy, 82, 714-721.
Surendra, K. C., Takara, D., Hashimoto, A. G., & Khanal, S. K. (2014). Biogas as a sustainable energy source for developing countries: Opportunities and challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 31, 846-859.
Vaughan, A. (2017). Time to shine: Solar power is fastest-growing source of new energy. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/04/solar-power-renewables-international-energy-agency
Yilmaz, N., & Vigil, F. M. (2014). Potential use of a blend of diesel, biodiesel, alcohols and vegetable oil in compression ignition engines. Fuel, 124, 168-172.
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