The Role Of Self-Efficacy And Gender In Influencing Mental Well-Being Among 18-60 Age Categories Of Colombo Suburbs

Albert Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy in influencing behavior

Question:

The Role of Self-Efficacy and Gender in Influencing Mental Well-Being among 18-60 age categories of Colombo Suburbs.

The concept of Albert Bandura’s self-efficacy is linked with judgments that individuals make concerning their capacity to exhibit conduct applicable to a particular errand or circumstances. It alludes to the confidence in one’s capacity to act in such a route or to deliver a desirable outcome (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy has various sorts of effects on how individuals feel, think and act. Self– efficacy relates to hopeful conviction about having the capacity to adapt to an assortment of stressors. Self- efficacy is characterized as self-assessment of one’s capability to effectively execute a strategy important to achieve wanted results. (Zimmerman, 2000) argues that it is a multi-dimensional construct that differentiates between demands (Siddiqui 2015).

Self–efficacy pertains to optimistic belief about being able to cope up with a variety of stressors. People with high Self- Efficacy choose to perform more challenging and difficult tasks. Those who have low levels of Self-efficacy may brush with depression, anxiety and helplessness. People with high levels of self-efficacy on the other hand, approach life with a can – do attitude that allows them to see challenges as problems to be solved instead of threats that must be avoided. They also set appropriately challenging goals for themselves and maintain a strong commitment to those goals. People with strong Self–Efficacy enjoy life because they are highly engaged. When they encounter stressful situations their belief in their ability to manage situations to their benefit allows self –confidence (Siddiqui 2015).

However, individuals feeling low levels of self-efficacy may be worried about discouragement, nervousness and weaknesses. They approach existence with a can’t – do mentality that causes them to consider difficulties to be dangers that one must maintain a strategic distance from rather than issues to be tackled and eliminated. High self-efficacy is identified with positive prosperity, direction of stress, higher confidence, better physical condition, as well as better adjustment to and recuperation from diseases says(Bandura, 1997; Bisschop, Knegsman, Beekman, &Deeg, 2004; Kuijer& de Ridder, 2003). In contrast, low self-efficacy is identified with more side effects of nervousness and depression (Faure &Loxton, 2003; Kashdan& Roberts, 2004; Shnek, Irvine, Stewart, & Abbey, 2001)  and additionallybrings down levels of Mental Well- Being(Barlow, Wright, & Cullen, 2002; Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, &Pastorelli, 2003; Caprara, 2002). (Siddiqui 2015).

Mental Well Being is a subjective sentiment control joy fulfilment with life encounters ones part in the realm of work, feeling of accomplishment, utility ,belongingness, and no pain , areas or stress and so forth. It has been demonstrated that different variables influence adolescent’s level of mental well being. Mental well being to some degree is a pliant idea which is the sentiment individuals regular day to day existence exercises such emotions may go negative mental state or mental strains, for example, nervousness, articulation, disappointment ,passionate, fatigue ,misery, disappointment to a state which has been recognized as positive psychological wellness. (Bornstein, Davidson, Keyes, and Moore 2003) characterized prosperity as “the condition of fruitful execution for the duration of the life course incorporating psychical, psychological, and socio-emotional capacities that outcomes in.

Positive effect of high self-efficacy on how individuals feel, think, and act

Mental well being is defined as a state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential to cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community (WHO,2017)

There are existing gaps in local literature regarding the roles of self-efficacy and gender in enhancing psychological wellbeing. As well as in the current society it is evident that there are various problems based on education, in the work place etc, due to people being unhappy. Past studies have demonstrated a strong association between self-efficacy with factors such suicidal ideation, depression and others. These are the factors that govern one’s mental well being. However, there have been limited studies done on how self- efficacy could act as a predictor of mental well being; therefore there is a little understanding about self- efficacy and mental well-being in the Sri-Lankan context.

General Objective

To determine the role of Self- Efficacy and gender in influencing Mental Well-Being among age category of 18 to 60 years in the Colombo suburbs.

Specific Objective

To determine the degree to which Self Efficacy and gender could predict Mental Well-Being among the age groups of 18 to 60 years in the Colombo suburbs.

To determine the applicability of the two constructs, self- efficacy and mental well being in the Sri Lankan context.

To describe some factors associated with mental wellbeing among the age groups years in the Colombo suburbs.

Is there a relationship between self-efficacy and gender in influencing mental well being in adults?

Hupothesis of the Study

H₁ (Alternate Hypothesis): There is a statistical significant interaction between self-efficacy and gender in influencing mental well being.

H₀ (Null Hypothesis): There is no statistical significant interaction between self-efficacy and gender in influencing mental well being.

A literature review is a written argument that promotes a position by building a case from credible evidence based on previous research to address the research question at hand. It helps us analyze the current information available on a particular area of study, gathers questions that the research under scrutiny did not give answers to and also allows one to formulate the need and importance for extended study of research questions. A literature review is a journey made through an ongoing research and is done by first constructing the research question to be addressed. One then sifts through literature bodies for relevant articles and information and handles the results obtained to finally synthesize the research literature and write an assessment of this literature. In doing so, one gains an invaluable understanding of the study that gives deeper insight as you continue to rethink, refine and re-evaluate your review before presenting the final outcome (Guides.library.harvard.edu, 2017).

Identification of the negative impact of low self-efficacy on mental well-being

Psychological Well-Being is a way of describing the important sides to human functioning varying from positive relationships, to feelings of competence, to having meanings and purposes of an individual’s life (Diener et al, 2010).

Mental wellbeing can also defined as a subjective feeling of containment happiness satisfaction with life experiences ones role in the world of work, sense of achievement, utility, belongingness, and no distress, sections or worry (Shek, 1997; Sastre&Ferriere, 2000; VanWel, Linssen&Abma, 2000). Mental well being is somewhat malleable concept which is the feeling of people’s everyday life activities such feelings may range negative mental state or psychological strains such as anxiety, expression, frustration, emotional exhaustion, unhappiness, dissatisfaction to a state which has been identified as positive mental health (Jahoda ,1958).

As stated by Colvin, Randall and Block (1994), mental wellbeing is often referred to the process of adaptation in terms of extensive and inclusive mental growth. Doornbos, (2002) mentions that the mental health to a great extent is determined by the reality as because the reality is considered to be a critical component of the mental health. Therefore, the reality plays an important role in determining the mental wellbeing of the person (Achat, Helen, et al, 2000; Schore, 2001). It needs to be understand that this concept of reality being a major determinates of the mental wellbeing is only effective for the adolescent as because this is the age of growing (Lieberman and Alicia, 2004). The mental health is developed in this age as the result of being in close connection with the reality the wellbeing of mental health is immensely influenced by the same (Soysa, Champika and Wilcomb, 2015; Turner, Jay and Brown, 2010).

A recent study conducted in a Muslim community in India describes the gender as an essential perspective for investigation since, most males are thought to be unrivalled and while females are usually seen as inferior. Due to the stigma of women being inferior they may have found to have low self-efficacy than those men (Siddiqui 2015).

The present investigation was carried out to study the impact of Self-efficacy on Psychological Well-being among undergraduate students. The sample consisted of 100 (50 Male and 50 Female) students selected from the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. In order to collect the requisite data, General Self-Efficacy Scale (S. Sud, Schwarzer and Jerusalum 1995) and mental Well-being (Carol Ryff 1989) was used to study the mentioned problem Simple Linear Regression was used analysis impact the self efficacy on mental well being among undergraduate students. The findings of the present study show that, correlation between Self-efficacy and Mental Well-being among Male students was found R = .596 and actual contribution of predictor variable to criterion variable was found to be 35.6% whereas among Female students correlation between Self-efficacy and Mental Well-being was found R = .551 and actual contribution of predictor variable to criterion variable was found to be 30.4%. Further t-test was applied and according, to the results Self-efficacy as well as Psychological Well-being of both groups, found to have an insignificant difference between Self- Efficacy of Male and Female students and a significant difference was found between Mental Well Being of both groups (Siddiqui, 2015)

Mental well-being described as a feeling of containment, happiness, and satisfaction with life experiences

A study done in Poland explores the relationships between psychological variables/models such as health behaviors (HB), sense of coherence (SOC), level of optimism (LOO), and self-efficacy (SE) among college students. The random sample of 455 undergraduate students was taken from five different faculties. The results indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) between these four variables: for example, the healthier health behaviours the stronger the sense of coherence, level of optimism and self-efficacy. It was also demonstrated that LOO, SOC, SE, and HB correlate with one another (Fergusson et al. 2005)

Another research on the impact of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on the mental health was conducted in Kurukshetra University, India among 200 students (100 males and 100 female) (Gupta, Garima, and Kumar, 2010). In regard to this, it must be noted that the students were from arts and science background which was an appropriate and fine contextual background for understating the role of reality on the mental well-being. The result was significant in terms of identifying the different of the self-efficacy and emotional intelligence of the students of different streams in relation to the mental wellbeing. The result shows two results, one of which differentiate the mental health in terms of gender and other differentiates in terms of the reality. The first result shows that the mental health of male is better that the females in terms of self-efficacy as the values shows male>female = 90.97>81.35. on the other hand, the values for the total mental health marks male>female = 159.87>149.91. Another result of the research shows that the mental health of the science and arts students does not significantly differ in terms of the self-efficacy.

Self- efficacy has been observed to be connected with academic accomplishment and performances (Salami &Ogundokun, 2009). People endeavor to feel good even when they’re aware of their own restrictions (self-acknowledgment), try to create and keep up warm and confide in interpersonal relationships (constructive relations with others), attempt to deal with their condition in order to address individual issues and desires(environmental mastery); also, people search for a sense self-assurance and individual authority (autonomy), discovering importance in one’s endeavors and difficulties (reason in life); finally, people tend to look for their talents and limits (self-awareness) (Salami &Ogundokun, 2009).

Literature shows impacts of socio-demographic factors, for example, age and sex in the measurements of Psychological Well-Being (Clarke et al., 2000; Keyes &Ryff, 1998; Marmot et al., 1998; Ryff& Singer, 1996). Environmental mastery and autonomy tends to rise with age particularly from midlife to grown-ups (Ryff 1989). In contrast, it was discovered that  that women of any age esteemed themselves higher on positive relations with others and personal growth. Psychological Well-Being and Self-efficacy have been appeared to foresee understudies’ educational performances and achievement (Ryff and Singer 1996). In this, regard it needs to be mentioned that the early childhood of people’s life cycle plays a vital role in determining the mental health of them Umberson, Debra, et al, (1996). The initial days of childhood is important stage of developing the mental health of people. In accordance to Doornbos, (2002), it must be marked that most of the children tend to develop feminine mental health as due to the matriarchal take care of them. However, the boys break this feminine mental health and establish a masculine identity with the growth whereas the mental health of girls are encouraged. This process of growing up of the girls creates problems for them in their adulthood in terms of the separation from any of the close family members.

Identification of gaps in the local literature on the mentioned constructs in Sri Lankan context

However, in regard to impact of self-efficacy, many researchers provide evidence about, students who expressed high amounts of self-efficacy and mental well-being were roused to take an interest in important academic activities and to create uplifting mentalities that prompted accomplishment at school (Ozer and Bandura, 1990; Lyubomirsky, 2001; Khramtsova et al., 2007) and were high likely going to perform well in their academic goals (Zimmerman, Bandura, and Martinez-Pons, 1992). Besides, students who saw themselves as exceptionally proficient in school setting were likely going to create positive attitudes towards the learning of subjects. Students with high mental well being and life fulfillment were observed to be more adaptable, versatile, and effective in critical thinking and were more dedicated to their academic goal (Pajares and Schunk, 2001; Salami, 2010).

An Italian study conducted in adolescents to analyze the relationship between generalized self-efficacy and psychological well-being in highly vs. lowly efficient students using the Generalized Self-efficacy Scale (GSES) and the short version of Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWB) determine the positive relationships between GSES and PWB, especially with mastery, personal growth, and self-acceptance. For age, except for the autonomy, the highest scores of personal growth, relations with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance were obtained by 16yrs adolescents, while the lowest scores were reached by 14yrs and 18yrs adolescents. Results also showed that boys expressed greater GSES and PWB than girls –specifically, mastery and self-acceptance again emphasizing the importance of the role of gender and self efficacy in influencing mental wellbeing. Additionally, highly efficient adolescents expressed higher scores in PWB, especially in mastery, personal growth, and self-acceptance, than lowly efficient ones. (Caroli and Sagone, 2014).

The social-cognitive hypothesis, desires assume an essential part in forming conduct, objectives and general human functions. Both self-efficacy and optimism desires are identified with processing and wellbeing. High self-efficacy is connected, for instance, to the direction of the anxiety procedure, to higher self-esteem, better Mental Well-Being, better physical condition, better adjustment to and recovery from intense and chronic ailments (Bandura, 1997; Bisschop, Knegsman, Beekman, and Deeg, 2004; Kuijer and de Ridder, 2003). Literature shows that low self-efficacy is identified with more side effects of anxiety and depression (Faure and Loxton, 2003; Kashdan and Roberts, 2004; Shnek, Irvine, Stewart, and Nunnery, 2001), and to bring down levels of subjective well-being (Barlow, Wright, and Cullen, 2002; Bandura, Capr-ara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, and Pastorelli, 2003; Caprara, 2002). At the same time, social integration and the social support has been connected with the mental health. Umberson, Debra, et al, (1996), opines that social support positively is associated with the mental health of the people, the gender plays a significant role in differentiating the mental wellbeing and mental growth of the people, specially within the elderly people. However, Turner, Jay and Brown (2010) argues that the social support creates almost similar effects on both the women and men in terms of impacting the level of depression. For example, the married people tend to reflect better and stronger mental health compared to the widowed or divorced as because the key to social integration is missing for the latter groups.

In regard to this, Cohen, Sheldon and Wills, (1985). mentioned that depression is one of the significant factors for the determination of the self-efficacy and accordingly the mental health. Hastings, Richard and Brown (2002) found from one research that the college students alone as well as in group exhibit depression when self-efficacy inversely predicts the same. However, Kawachi, Ichiro and Berkman (1985) marks that self-efficacy and gender do not contribute significant variance in the prediction of depression.  

Optimism has a relationship with health and wellbeing. Various research studies have discovered that optimism altogether predicts a few parts of mental well-being (Chang and Sanna, 2001; Diener, Oishi, and Lucas, 2003; Eid and Diener, 2004; Makikangas and Kinnunen, 2003). Optimism is contrarily identified with depressive symptomatology both in the all-inclusive community (Vickers and Vogeltanz, 2000) and in populations with different unending conditions, for example, cardio-vascular diseases (Shnek et al., 2001). Some of the scholars argues over the topic and they consider optimisms to be the marker for inadequate neuroticism and more generally negative emotion (Smith, et al., 1989; Colvin, Randall and Block, 1988). In accordance to this views, optimism can be associated with the mental health status as it exhibits a disposition which is free from cognition and negative emotions (Taylor and Brown, 1988; Scheier, Michael and Carver, 1985). It is likewise a noteworthy indicator of physical and mental working in patients experiencing different medicinal conditions (Carver et al., 1993; Fournier, de Ridder, and Bensing, 2002). Optimism has been observed to be connected to functioning and wellbeing both directly and indirectly that implies, e.g., of affectivity or self-esteem (Chang and Sanna, 2001; Symister and Friend, 2003).

Apart from this, Positive thinkers appear to utilize more issue centred coping techniques and more powerful methods for emotional regulation, both of which add to better functioning (Taylor and Armor, 1996). Studies describes that social help is an associated factor for mental well being in addition to depression (Kahn, Hessling, and Russell, 2003; Mikulincer and Florian, 1998;Sayal et al., 2002).  It is proven that people with more strong families or companions have a healthy wellbeing status and they recovery process is faster from medical issues, contrasted with people who are less socially coordinated (Hogan, Lin-cave, and Najarian 2002; Rhodes 2004). Social support appears to apply effect on wellbeing both specifically and in a roundabout way through certain cognitive systems, coping strategies, and health behaviours (Cohen and Wills, 1985; Davis and Swan, 1999; Wills and Fegan, 2001).

Self-efficacy, optimism and social support have been consistently related to health and functioning. Considering the impact of self-efficacy on the mental health, the following study conducted in Greece tests specific hypothesis: self-efficacy expectations, as a representation of a capable self and perceived social support, as a representation of a helpful world, shape optimism which is an outcome expectation. Satisfaction with life and depressive symptomatology both served as indicators of well-being. Two Hundred and One individuals participated in the study. The hypothesis was tested through structural equation modelling. Six different models with optimism, self-efficacy and social support as possible mediators were consecutively tested and compared. According to only model that provided fit to the data, optimism partially mediates the relation of self-efficacy and perceived social support to well-being (Scheier, Michael and Carver, 1985). Optimism was predicted by daily emotional support and self-efficacy. The results showed that there is a significant difference between self -efficacy and depression; mental well being and depression; optimism has a partial relationship with self-efficacy; spirituality, self-efficacy, age, and gender significantly influenced psychological wellbeing (Karademas, 2006). According to the few studies on the self-efficacy and optimism as the impact of the same on the mental health of the people, it is suggested that the mental health outcomes are relatively sparse (Achat, Helen, et al, 2000). On the other hand, as stated by Taylor, Shelley and Brown (1988) there has been certain impact of the stressor on the optimism and further on the mental health. For example, one of the major stressor is illness which often produce additional stressor for the mental health such as the financial concerns, job loss and many others (Colvin, Randall and Block, 1994). Consequently, the level of optimisms is influenced by these primary as well as additional stressors and eventually leads to the mental health breakdown (Soysa, Champika, and Wilcomb, 2015).

A cross sectional study was conducted to measure whether coping self efficacy mediates between various distress related variables on the other hands (symptoms of depression), and the degree of psycho-social well being as measured on the upper end of the mental health continuum on the other hand. The study states that coping up with normal stressors in life do not have a good outcome/ result.  Several factors such as culture, self-esteem, self efficacy are believed to play a role in coping stressors. In order, for the collection of data a cross-sectional survey design was conducted from four groups of participants. Two multi-cultural groups’ English proficient individuals were selected in order to conduct the study. Statistical analysis that was used to in order to measure the above measures were done through the descriptive statistical method.  The results showed that coping self-efficacy mediated significantly between distress and wellbeing, although stressors also influenced the level of psychosocial wellbeing directly.  Therefore, since the results show that there is a correlation between self-efficacy, distress and other factors it can be concluded that self-efficacy can be a predictor of mental well being. Several, limitations of the study were gathered. The student group was not random sampling, it was availability samples however, the results had the same effect (Wissing et al., 2011).

A study conducted to examine the effects of self-esteem, psychological Well-Being, emotional self-efficacy and affect balance variables on happiness including 340 university students in Turkey. The relationships between the variables were examined via path analysis and came out positive and significant relationship between mental well-being, emotional self-efficacy and affect balance; and that mental well-being and affect balance have positive effects on self-esteem and happiness, emotional self-efficacy has a positive effect on self-esteem and that self-esteem has a positive effect on happiness. (Dogan, Totan and Sapmaz 2013).

The following shows the relationships of all these variables were observed through the path analysis method, which was best described by a hypothesis model (Dogan, Totan and Sapmaz, 2013).

Figure 1. Hypothesis model for the effects of Self-esteem, psychological well-being, emotional self-efficacy, and affect balance on happiness

At this point when the hypothesis model of the study is analyzed, it is expected that there will be sure connections between Psychological Well-Being, emotional Self-Efficacy and effect balance and that these three factors will positively affect confidence and that moreover, psychological well-being, affect balance and confidence will have a positive effect on happiness. Another presumption is that emotional self-efficacy won’t directly affect self-esteem; in any case it will indirectly affect happiness by method for self-esteem. While in the model it displays psychological well-being, emotional self-efficacy and affect balance are exogenous factors, self-esteem and happiness are endogenous factors. (Dogan, Totan and Sapmaz, 2013)

As indicated by the outcomes, happiness has been emphatically and essentially related with psychological well-being, emotional self- efficacy, affect balance and self- esteem. Also, positive and noteworthy connections have been computed between psychological well- being and emotional self-efficacy, affect balance and self- esteem whereas positive and huge connections have been ascertained between affects balance and self-esteem. The significant relationship amongst these factors and the elevated amounts of internal consistency coefficients were acknowledged to be signifiers of adequacy for the pathway analysis and in this way the analysis was done.(Dogan, Totan and Sapmaz, 2013). On the other hand, the structuralist researchers argue that different structure of male and female in the society are linked with differ opportunities, demands ad constraints which are influential to the diverse relationships (Umberson, Debra, et al, 1996; Colvin, Randall and Block, 1994). Considering this fact, it can also be liked with the gender differentiations. For example, in terms of the social reward men and women are provided with different pays for the same role, which can be an influential factor for the mental wellbeing. Schore, (2001), states that, this can be the result for the men in possessing more confident than women in the same social context and for same responsibilities.      

Mental well-being, emotional self-efficacy and affect balance; and that mental well-being and affect balance have positive effects on self-esteem and happiness, emotional self-efficacy has a positive effect on self-esteem and that self-esteem has a positive effect on happinesshence, due to these studies have a correlation between one another this study is done to investigate and demonstrate whether there is a relationship between self-efficacy and mental well being. (Dogan, Totan and Sapmaz, 2013)

 

Figure 2. Result of path analysis regarding the effects of Self-esteem, psychological well- being, emotional self-efficacy, and affect balance on happiness

In result of the path analysis for the hypothesis model, it was resolved that there are noteworthy and positive connections between psychological well-being, emotional self-efficacy and affect balance and that psychological well- being and affect balance have positive results on self-esteem and happiness, emotional self efficacy has positive effects on self esteem and self esteem has positive effects on happiness. It was concluded as a result of path analysis that the ways amongst endogenous and exogenous factors are significant. (Dogan, Totan and Sapmaz, 2013)

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