Discuss about the Theories of Communication and Uses.
The study and uses of communication or mass media have triggered research in communication and mass media. There are many different communication theories that contribute to the development and information in the media uses. These theories explain various aspects of media from a different perspective. Some of the theories that have been advanced explain the media from the role perspective, audience perspective, structure perspective, and functional perspective. Theories of communications can explain the current trends in communication especially the mass media (Baran & Davis, 2009). One example of the theory of communication is the Use and Gratification theory. The theory is an audience-based approach to mass media as the theory focus on needs of an audience that are satisfied through media uses. The theory explains the role of media in the communication platform with a major focus on the audience using media for specific needs. Modern application of the theory of uses and gratification indicates that there are many different media that are used to satisfy the needs of the user. The following paper explores various elements of Uses and Gratification theory with applications in the modern mass media.
The Overview and Theory Background
The theory of Uses and gratifications theory is an audience based theory that takes into account how people need media for a specific need. The theory is an audience-centered approach to the understanding of mass communication and the use of various media. Many theories of communications focus on the effects of media on people in contrast to what people do with media. This implies that the Uses and gratifications theory explains the positive effect of the media and to some extent the positive effects of mass communication. According to West and Lynn (2010), the two questions that the theory tries to explain are why people use media and what they use the media for. There are some assumptions in this theory of communication. The firstly, the underlying assumption of this theory is that media users have total control of the media they use or consume. Secondly, another assumption is that media normally compete with other needs to be satisfied. Thirdly, people have self-awareness on the media use and the motive behind the usage. Therefore the role of the user is actively filtering what they use or consume and hence incorporate these media items into their lives (Correa, Hinsley & de Zuniga, 2010).
History and development of Uses and gratification theory
The history of the Uses and gratifications theory date back to 1940s when some research were done on radio listening. The two scientists Jay Blumler and Denis McQuail later laid the primary groundwork in 1969 following motivation of audience to listen to political radio programs. The theory was then synthesized on the socio-psychological need of the media based on the social needs of the media in the audience.
The stages of the theory
The Uses and gratifications theory progressed in three different stages and these are based on the historical development of the theory. Stage one entails the period between 1944 and 1954 where researchers searched into the earliest form of usage and gratification that existed. In 1944 for instance, various media such as soap operas were analyzed based their forms of gratifications wishful thinking, emotional, and learning. In 1954, Wilbur Schramm explains some media that people would select (McQuail & Windahl, 1993).
The second stage of the theory entails the period between 1969 and 1973 and during this period various aspect of media gratifications are studied. For instance, the motives of watching particular television programs were studied and the result shows some personal uses such as diversion, personal identity, personal relationships, and surveillance. This was also preceded by more research on how many people view mass media in 1974 (McQuail, 2010).
The third stage of the development of the theory includes the current theory research that presents the connection between personal factors and media usage. During this last stage of development, many people view media usage and the gratification they receive from the media they use. The last bit of the theory focuses on the media user and the agency in the context of mass media. This also includes the current mass communication usage and application in modern daily life (Dainton & Elain, 2011).
Role of media
Research has been done on Uses and Gratification theory to show the role of media in users or society. These studies indicate that media importance and the role it plays satisfies the specific need of the user. Being an audience based theory, the theory suggests that the effects of media on the audience is determined by the audience themselves. This is due to the assumption that audience has full control of what they consume. According to the theory, the media user has full responsibility for interpretation of the media they use and the effects of the media in their lives. For instance, online users have full responsibility for the media they access and use. The overall role of the media as viewed by users is to satisfy needs and personal value. Understanding needs that media satisfies is important for the basis of the theory of Uses and gratification (Grellhesl & Punyanunt-Carter, 2012).
Types of needs that are satisfied under the theory
The uses and gratification theory is based on needs that media satisfies and some of this needs include affection, cognitive, personal integrative, emotional relieve and social integrative. Firstly, social integrative is the interaction element of the mass media that indicates an interaction between user and family or friends. Secondly, affection is an aspect of the theory that is based on uses of media by users to arouse some feeling and emotions. Affection also entails various feeling that users satisfied with the specific media item. Thirdly, uses and gratification theory indicates that media can satisfy the need for information especially those using information on daily basis. Fourthly, personal integrative need includes those needs such as status, reputation and image promotion that is based on mass media. Many media user in the contemporary society has personal gratifications that make them obtain and user media that forms part of that need. Lastly, tension relive is an important need that relieves media users from psychological stress and emotional tensions. The theory explains the importance of media on relieving users from personal stress since entertainment aspect of the media normally reduces tension (Katz, Jay & Gurevitch, 2011).
Mobile phone usage
Uses and gratification theory has a vast array of usage in the modern mobile phone. Being a modern and current technology, mobile phones has both uses and gratifications at the same time on an individual. One of the characteristics of the mobile phones that make their uses and access to content easy is their flexibility and mobility. The mobile phone currently has various uses and gratification that are in line with the theory. Firstly, the media device is used for entertainment and this is evident with the current smartphones that present various entertainment items (Lee & Long, 2012). Mobile phone usage serves to gratifies needs of communication, entertainment and socializing with people. Secondly, mobile phones are used for sociability of the user and this is also due to many social platforms currently found on most phones. Thirdly, the mobile phone provides psychological reassurance through fulfilling the psychological need such as access to some contents. Fourthly, immediate access is another application of the theory within mobile phone as the user has the assurance of immediate access to content that gratifies their needs. Mobile phones usage satisfies user’s need at any location since the communication increase accessibility and communication from any location (Chua, Hoe-Lian & Chei 2012).
This usage includes all internet usage of media that currently dominate the mass media communication. The Internet is another critical area of accessing the theory of uses and gratification in mass communication. The internet offers three main domains of gratification and these are content gratification, process gratification, and social gratification. Firstly, the internet enables users to get or research various contents that are used to satisfy their desire for content gratification (Leila, Rouhollah, Maryam & Muhammad, 2014). The content gratifies their cognitive needs since the most online user uses those platforms for research and learning as much as they use them for entertainment or social. Secondly, process gratification entails media users getting gratification from the user and functional process of the internet. The online usage of media fulfills the need of the user to access various processes within the internet. Thirdly, the social gratification is another domain that is applied in the online usage of media and this includes forming a social connection between users across various internet platforms. Online usage, especially on the internet, offers many different avenues for socializing and meeting people (Leung, 2013).
Social media and social networks currently form the main aspect of both organizational and personal communication. Many studies show that use and gratification theory has vast application within the social media since the aspect of media has both social and psychological gratification on the user despite age being an important factor in the media. Social media activities such as posting contents and advertisement present various usage and gratifications. Some common elements of social media that are readily applicable to the theory are personal social media; content-based social media and chat forums. Some of the areas of gratification include social and affecting, entertainment, psychological needs, and recognition (Phua, Seunga & Kim, 2017).
There are many different uses of the social media that directly reflect the theory of uses and gratification. Some of the uses of the social media include expression feeling, gaining recognition, and showing affection (Tosun, 2012). Firstly, the social media offers a platform where people from various walks of lives meet and express their inner negative feeling and this is reflected in the content of information posted on social media. Secondly, many people with a need to gain recognition and this need are thus satisfied. Thirdly, social media offers the platform where people meet to socialize and show their affection. The gratification need of affection is satisfied through social media. In addition, the application of social media works through various social media sites that dominate current mass media (Urista, Qingwen & Day, 2012).
Example of social media
Some of the most common types of media sites include Facebook, Twitter, and snap-chat. Firstly, Facebook is one of the social media can be used to explains the Uses and Gratification theory since the theory explains the motive behind the conception of the media. Facebook fulfill social gratification, information and friendly companies where people share information. Secondly, Twitter offers users ability to engage each other in interpersonal communication with various mass media options used in terms of tweets. Thirdly, snapchat as a mass media is used for sharing media items such as photos and this gratification behind this media is fun and socializing (Raacke & Bonds-Raacke, 2008).
Instant messaging is another area of application of use and gratification theory that has also take the center of the modern mass media or communication. Instant messaging media has both online chat and offline massaging platforms that also allow users to text or video chat with others. The media gets gratification from the content of the messages and the expression of their emotional feeling to others. The bottom line of the usage for instant messaging media is affection and sociability of the platform. Another area of gratification is entertainment as those using the media seeks to get their sociability needs and affection satisfied by the media (Lariscy, Tinkham & Sweetser, 2011). The role of this media is based on the affection, tense relieve and social gratification. Firstly, the instant messaging application as they currently called is used for social interaction with family members and friend in the bid to satisfy social needs. Secondly, the media also fulfill the need for the pleasure of communicating with other people that are close to the user. Thirdly, the media is used to relieve tense especially emotional tense since the media allow expression of one’s feeling.
Online gaming and other mobile gaming are some other media that currently are used by many people around the world. The theory of use and gratification tries to explain the current trend of many youths specifically certain age flock to gaming platforms to play online games. The three pillars of online games are social interaction; enjoyment and feeling of achievement are some important aspects of online gaming. Firstly, the feeling of social interaction fills those people involve in gaming. Secondly, the theory tries to explain the pleasure and enjoyment that comes along with playing online games. Thirdly, the feeling of achievement is another gratification that makes people play online media games. This feeling of achievement drives media users to get the media so as to have their needs fulfilled (Wang, Tchernev & Solloway, 2012).
Entertainment media which forms part of current mass media is an important modern application of the theory. There are many different forms of entertainment media give the gratification to users. Some of the media that offer entertainment are movies, television, television, and songs. Entertainment media has gratification that includes those for affection, cognitive, social, psychological and personal needs (Bartsch & Reinhold, 2010). Firstly, entertainment media fulfills gratification needs of affection since the media satisfies emotional and pleasure needs of users. Many users feel relieved from emotional stress while at the same time get the pleasure of entertainment. Secondly, media is acting a socialization platform where users meet and connect with family members and others. The social gratification is core explanation of the role of media in the current modern time. Thirdly, entertainment media ensures that personal need for status and recognition are satisfied and this makes many users look for specific content that will satisfy this need. Finally, the entertainment media uses such as internet enable many people around the world get information for cognitive development (Oliver & Raney, 2011).
Theory Criticism
There are many criticisms that have been advanced to explain the adverse effect of the theory in the perspective of the effect of the media on the user. Some of these include the addiction to the media, the spread of misinformation, negative information spread and psychological illness. Firstly, many people argue that there are adverse effects of the media on users at the point of negative approach to mass communication (Barton, 2009). Use and gratification theory present positive effects of media on the user taking into account the emotional gratification yet they do not explain the addition effects of the media on users. Critics are also based on the theory of negative media effects that emphasize on the adverse effect of the media in the society (Leila, Rouhollah, Maryam & Muhammad, 2014).
Secondly, not all media carry useful information to the user and this gives the media an element of misinformation. Though the theory indicates that users get gratification for using the media and thus has the drive for those media, the theory does not explain the psychological illness that results from consuming too much of negative information. In addition, various users from different eras have different motives of using media and this changes over time. This implies that those at the time of the development of the theory are not the same as those in the current generation. Moreover, the media used at different times are not the same as today many new media has come up and differs significantly. The effect of the media also differs from different generations (Stanley & Dennis, 2011).
Historical development of the media also has left many research questions as many people argue against the theory on the basis that the theory does not shoe historical consistency. This implies that historical development does not consider any factor during the research conducted. In addition, the historical development of the theory present possibility of further development hence the theory of use and gratification is liable to change and not reliable in explaining communication. Moreover, the theory does not consider the hierarchical arrangement of need as this can place media need after other important needs (West & Lynn, 2010).
Rebuttal
Despite the criticisms of the theory, the use and gratification theory remains relevant in the current mass communication world. Firstly, Use and gratification theory explain the underlying reasons for many uses of the media in the modern times. In addition, the modern media offers many advantages that point to media use motives. Critics argue that the theory is based on research yet the truth about the theory is based on the positive approach to media as opposed to a negative approach that has been the central focus of many theories. Secondly, the many media that are coming up explains the agency of the media that forms part of the theory. The theory is important for as it explains the motive behind many social media that are cropping up as the theory is also based on socio-psychological gratification needs of the user of mass media (Whiting & Williams, 2013).
Conclusion
In conclusion, uses and gratification theory explains the audience based perspective of the media in the society. The theory is based on the gratification that comes as a result of using media and this is from the positive approach. The approach views media from the importance and needs that the media satisfy in users. Some of the key pillars of the theory are social gratification, affection, cognitive gratification, entertainment and recognition needs. Moreover, the theory tries to explain the basis of the influx of online media users and their motives that drive them to such mass media. The theory has a different application of modern-day communication or mass media as it forms the basis of socio-psychological needs that are satisfied by media items. The historical development of the theory categorized based on stages indicates that the development was based on intensive research.
Reference
Baran, S. J. & Davis, D.K. (2009). Mass communication theory: foundations, ferment, and future (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth. p. 416.
Barton, K.M. (2009). Reality television programming and diverging gratifications: the influence of content on gratifications obtained, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(3): 460?476.
Bartsch, A., & Reinhold, V. (2010). The Use of Media Entertainment and Emotional Gratification. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5: 2247–2255. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.444
Chua, A.Y.K., Hoe-Lian D. & Chei S.L. (2012). Mobile Content Contribution and Retrieval: An Exploratory Study Using the Uses and Gratifications Paradigm. Information Processing & Management, 48 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2011.04.002
Correa, T., Hinsley, A. W., & de Zuniga, H. G. (2010). Who interacts on the web? The intersection of users’ personality and social media use. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(1), 247-253.
Dainton, M., & Elain D.Z. (2011). Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life (PDF). Sage Publications. p. 247. Retrieved from https://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/4983_Dainton_Chapter_1.pdf
Grellhesl, M. & Punyanunt-Carter, N.M. (2012). Using the Uses and Gratifications Theory to Understand Gratifications Sought through Text Messaging Practices of Male and Female Undergraduate Students. Computers in Human Behavior, 28 (6): 2175–2181. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.06.024
Katz, E., Jay, G.B. & Gurevitch, M. (2011). Uses and Gratifications Research. Public Opinion Quarterly 4th ser. 37 (1973–1974): 509-23. JSTOR. Web. 14 Oct. 2011. Retrieved from https://jstor.org/stable/2747854
Lariscy, R.W., Tinkham, S.F. & Sweetser, K.D. (2011). Kids these days: examining differences in political uses and gratifications, internet political participation, political information efficacy, and cynicism on the basis of age, American Behavioral Scientist, 55 (6): 749?764.
Lee, C.S. & Long, M. (2012). News Sharing in Social Media: The Effect of Gratifications and Prior Experience. Computers in Human Behavior, 28 (2): 331–339.
Leila, K., Rouhollah, K., Maryam E. & Muhammad, A. (2014). Applying the Uses and Gratifications Theory to Compare Higher Education Students’ Motivation for Using Social Networking Sites: Experiences from Iran, Malaysia, United Kingdom, and South Africa. Contemporary Educational Technology, 2014, 5(1), 53-72
Leung, L. (2013). Generational Differences in Content Generation in Social Media: The Roles of the Gratifications Sought and of Narcissism. Computers in Human Behavior Management, 29 (3): 997–1006. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.028
McQuail, D. (2010). McQuails Mass Communication Theory (6th ed.,). London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage Publications.
McQuail, D. & Windahl, S. (1993). Communication models for the study of mass communication. London: Longman.
Oliver, M.B. & Raney, A.A. (2011). Entertainment as Pleasurable and Meaningful: Identifying Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motivations for Entertainment Consumption. Journal of Communication, 61 (5): 984–1004. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01585.x
Phua, J., Seunga J.V. & Kim, J. (2017). Uses and Gratifications of social networking cite for bridging and bonding social capital: A comparison of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat. Computers in Human Behavior, 72 (July 2017): 115–122. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.041
Raacke, J. & Bonds-Raacke, J. (2008). MySpace and Facebook: Applying the Uses and Gratifications Theory to Exploring Friend-Networking Sites. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11 (2): 169–174. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.0056
Stanley, J. B. & Dennis, K. D. (2011). Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment, and Future, 6th Edition (Wadsworth Series in Mass Communication and Journalism) page 418. Retrieved from https://b-ok.xyz/book/1176673/49ce35
Tosun, L. P. (2012). Motives for Facebook use and expressing ‘‘true self’’ on the Internet. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, pp 1510-1517.
Urista, M. A. Qingwen D. & Day K. D. (2012). Explaining Why Young Adults Use MySpace and Facebook Through Uses and Gratifications Theory. Human Communication. A Publication of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association, 12(2): 215 – 229.
Wang, Z., Tchernev, J.M. & Solloway, T. (2012). A Dynamic Longitudinal Examination of Social Media Use, Needs, and Gratifications among College Students. Computers in Human Behavior, 28 (5): 1829–1839. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.05.001
West, R.L., & Lynn, H. T. (2010). Uses and Gratifications Theory. Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2010. 392-409. Print.
Whiting, A. & Williams, D. (2013). Why people use social media: a uses and gratifications approach, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 16 (4): 362-369, doi.org/10.1108/QMR-06-2013-0041
Williams, D.L., Crittenden, V.L., Keo, T. and McCarty, P. (2012), The use of social media: an exploratory study of uses among digital natives, Journal of Public Affairs, 12 (2): 127?136.
Essay Writing Service Features
Our Experience
No matter how complex your assignment is, we can find the right professional for your specific task. Contact Essay is an essay writing company that hires only the smartest minds to help you with your projects. Our expertise allows us to provide students with high-quality academic writing, editing & proofreading services.
Free Features
Free revision policy
$10Free bibliography & reference
$8Free title page
$8Free formatting
$8How Our Essay Writing Service Works
First, you will need to complete an order form. It's not difficult but, in case there is anything you find not to be clear, you may always call us so that we can guide you through it. On the order form, you will need to include some basic information concerning your order: subject, topic, number of pages, etc. We also encourage our clients to upload any relevant information or sources that will help.
Complete the order form
Once we have all the information and instructions that we need, we select the most suitable writer for your assignment. While everything seems to be clear, the writer, who has complete knowledge of the subject, may need clarification from you. It is at that point that you would receive a call or email from us.
Writer’s assignment
As soon as the writer has finished, it will be delivered both to the website and to your email address so that you will not miss it. If your deadline is close at hand, we will place a call to you to make sure that you receive the paper on time.
Completing the order and download