Discuss About The Nonprofit And Voluntary Sector Quarterly.
The agency theory focuses on reducing the agency cost which arises due to the conflict of interest between principal and agent. In order to make the employees work in best interest of shareholders, company should motivate them by offering performance and equity based compensation. The fixed salaries given to the managers and employee does not motivate them anymore. Instead of that, employees start looking for their own benefits. So agency theory suggest that the compensation package must be desirable and should also include components other than fixed salaries. This will motivate the employees and will reduce agency cost (Ims, Pedersen and Zsolnai, 2014).
It is the largest part of a compensation package and is used as a point of comparison between the potential employees. Salaries are been given as per the skills and performance of the employee. This component motivate employees to work hard because salary increment take place only when an individual improve his performance and meets his targets as well as organizational objectives (Singh, 2007)).
These are basically the performance incentives which are usually paid to the employees in a lump sum at the end of the year. Bonus is been given according to the performance of an employee plus helps in motivating him (AllBusiness.com. 2018).
It includes health insurance of an employee sponsored by employer. Moreover, it is a benefit of great value to the employees. It save their money and provide them a sense of security that they would not be denied in their existing health issues. This motivate them to work for company with full interests (AllBusiness.com. 2018).
These are been used by many companies in order to retain, attract and compensate best employees in the organizations. Stock options are basically a contract between the employees and employer in which workers or employees are allowed to purchase a specific number of company’s shares for a given period of time and at a fixed price. This benefit them by exercising their options when company’s stocks are traded at higher prices which earn them a certain amount of profit. It motivates them and help the employer to keep them in the organization (Olagues and Summa, 2010).
It is a type of pension plan which is less expensive and more popular. It is included in the compensation packages of employees because it gives them some control over their contribution and they have the right to know the manner in which money is invested. Such plans offer employees a security regarding their contributed amount. As a result of which, employees feel motivated and are focused (Francis and Schipper, 2011).
This is something related to securing the whole life of an employee. It also cost less when purchased by the employer. An organization offering life insurance policies in its compensation packages will definitely attract people and motivate its employees (AllBusiness.com. 2018).
Other benefits like food and beverages, club memberships, company discounts and conveyance facilities also helps the employer in keeping its employee motivated and encouraged for meeting the set targets.
The identification of employee’s risk tolerance is one of the important factor for deciding a compensation package for him or her. Keeping the right attitude towards risk benefits the employees and make them feel secure and more valued. This also help them in becoming more engaged in their work and remain positive for the same. As a result of which, their productivity will be enhanced which ultimately affect the performance of the organization. If the workers keep a positive attitude towards every type of business risk then it may also lead to less absenteeism. All this will positively impact the desired compensation package of employees and their overall performance. On the other hand, if employees have negative attitude towards risk then it may result in decrease of their compensation (Searles, 2017).
Performance based compensation is a system under which employee’s pay is directly linked to his or her performance. However, there are some factors which limit the effectiveness of such performance based compensation. Three of them are as follows:
All the above factors gave a significant impact on compensation packages which are based on the performance of employees. In a way, the effectiveness is hindered and employees feel demotivated. An undesirable pay can make employees feel unsecure and demoralized towards their work (Potemski, Rowland and Witham, 2011).
Executive compensation committee is been made by company’s board of directors which delegates its responsibility of framing an appropriate compensation package for executives and other members. However, there are certain benefits of having such committee which includes:
So in a way, executive compensation committee provide several benefits to the board while determining the components of compensation package.
The agency theory can be defined as the relationship between the principles and agents in the business. Agency theory is concerned with resolving the problems that can exist in the agency relation due to unaligned goals or different aversion levels to risk. The most common agency relation has existed between the shareholders (principal) and company executives (agents). The need for preparing the accounts lies in all the company irrespective of the nature and size of the business is operating. The accounts are prepared to assess the financial position of the company by taking into consideration all the cash flows and other increase and decrease in the accounts in liabilities and assets. In the agency theory also, the shareholders want the proper maintenance of the accounts so that they can invest in the company if they are satisfied with the performance and accounts made by the company executives (Ericsson, 2014).
Maintaining proper accounts by the company executives that are the agents of the company helps the principal to make better decision making in investing his funds. The preparation and review of accounts help to catch the mistakes earlier which are done by the company. It can also help in detecting the error, theft, fraud done in the accounts. Financial Statements will give shareholders the accurate and clear view of how the business is performing. Analysing the accounts gives the true picture as well as help in identifying the opportunities for growth. The progress of the company can also monitor by the analyzing and prepare the financial statements so there is need to maintain the proper books of accounts by the company executives (Rogers, 2014).
Agency theory states explain the needs for the audit of accounts. The primary goal of an audit is to express an opinion on the two aspects of the financial statement. These statements are related to that the accounts and statement are fairly presented and they should be in accordance with the GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles). The audit of accounts is necessary in every company irrespective of its nature and type of business. The audit of accounts is necessary as they are made by the internal body of the organization, so there should be one independent person who checks the accounts without any pressure of the company. The audit of accounts is important they are used by the internal as well as the external people by the organization. The audited reports and financial statement are used by the stakeholders who include the suppliers, investors and governments etc. The financial statements are seen by the investors to know the performance and check the creditworthiness of the company. The Stakeholders wants to assess the accounts, as they are interested in the financial capacity of the business. The financial capacity of the business reflects in the accounts and reports made by the company (Thomson, 2015).
The auditing of accounting is mandatory for completing the regulatory purpose of the business. The regulation also affects the demand for and the role of audit. In fact, the regulators are active on behalf of the principals to ensure that their interest is appropriately heeded and there may be more than one regulatory principal. Use of these regulations in the business gives the more right to the principals that can help to maintain the confidence and trust in the market (Duncan and Whittington, 2014).
In the study conducted by Van Puyvelde et al. (2012), governance is defined as the system through which an organization is been directed, controlled and accountable (Van Puyvelde, et al. 2012).
It is mentioned in the research that the basic assumption of agency theory is that the goals of the principal and the agent often conflict and it is difficult for the principal to identify or figure out what is the agent is actually doing. Both the parties in the relationship wants to increase their utilities, as a result of which, the behaviour and role of agent become uncontrollable which lead to the partial fulfilment of principal’s goals and objectives.
However, non-profit organizations are not immune enough to deal with such shrinking behaviour of the managers as well as of the employees. Therefore, Van Puyvelde et al. (2012) uses a principal-agent framework in their study in order to identify the governance of non-profit organizations. The study integrated agency theory with aspects of stakeholder and stewardship theory (Puyvelde, 2013).
The alternative theory given by Van Puyvelade was an integration of agency theory with the stakeholder theory. The literature suggested that many of the concepts of agency theory can be easily applied to stakeholder relationships and also the principal-agent relationship can be considered as a subset of general class of stakeholder relationships. As per the theory a difference was made between external and internal non-profit principal-agent relationships. In external relationships, external stakeholders play the role of agent or principal and in internal relationships, internal stakeholders of non-profit organizations are involved.
In order to overcome the conflict of interest and minimize agency cost, the agency theory was combined with stewardship theory. Under this theory, more focus is been given on agent’s tendency in order to make it more collective and intrinsically motivated, as suggested by stewardship theory. In addition to this, the external and internal non-profit organization relationships are analysed from a stewardship-agency perspective. The study suggested that both the theories are viewed as complement instead of considering them separately. This implies that extended agency theory does not only require to consider standard agency situations but also need to lay emphasis on limit situations where agents are motivated and have same interest as the shareholders. They are focused to work in best interest of principal (Van Puyvelde, et al. 2012).
Mixed method study is a type of research methodology in which both the quantitative and qualitative data is been research and analysed by respective methods. Najeb Masooud conducted a research addressing the audit expectation gap issue, in which he used the most common research technique known as Surveys. Under survey method, questionaries were formed to collect the required data. These questionaries were pilot tested and was followed by 12 semi structured interviews (Masoud, 2017).
The researcher was successful in making analysis of the first phase of his study. In his main analysis he showed that auditor group failed to recognize 12 of their existing duties leading to knowledge gap. Also this gap exist for the users of financial statements and the society made auditors responsible for such gap. In the first phase he also showed that the objectives of auditing were not clear to the users and auditors were on a belief that it was not their responsibility to detect fraud or
The questionnaires used was consist of two sections; section A included demographic data of the respondents whereas section B deal with 15 questions in total out of which, 7 were related to the responsibility factor, 5 were on reliability factor and 3 questions on decision usefulness factor. The questions were not open ended and the respondents were required to give rating on them from one to five as per their opinions. Moreover, these questionnaires were self-administered by the researchers (Salifu and Mahama, 2015).
In his research the questionaries were first translated into the official language of Libya which is Arabic. They were framed in English which was not widely spoken in Libya, so the translation was made in order to make respondents understand the questions. Once the questionnaires were completed, they were pilot tested and followed by 12 semi-structured interviews, taken from telephone, in written and meeting the relevant parties (Masoud, 2017).
From the above two, it can be said that the approach adopted by Masoud is superior to the one of Salifu and Mahama. Reason being, his questionnaires were not limited to agree or disagree aspects like the one in Salifu and Mahama’s research. It contained detail opinions of all the respondents and has also used several forms like for collecting the data like telephonic interview, meeting and consultations. Moreover, the questionnaire was piloted tested also.
Salifu and Mahama provided the findings of his questionnaries in form of demographics of respondents and measurement of existing expectations gap. The demographics were categorized as follows:
|
On basis of gender |
80.7% males 19.3% females |
|
On basis of accounting knowledge |
85.2% with qualification 14.8% without qualification |
|
In terms of occupation |
45 of the total 135 |
|
In terms of work experience |
57% (1-5 years) 36.3% (6-10 years) 3.7% (11-15 years) 3% (16 and above) |
Another part included the measurement of the opinions or perceptions of respondents including the auditors, bankers and students of ICA. The ratio of agreed and disagreed is been shown in terms of percentage (Salifu and Mahama, 2015).
Masuod shows all the findings of the interviews taken in a tabular form by applying statistical methods on the findings. A main analysis, empirical analysis and further analysis is been done in the study. Under main analysis, the table shows the mean of audit expectation gap in terms of responsibility, whereas under empirical analysis, knowledge about responsibilities to AEG components is been represented in form of table (Masoud, 2017).
The findings written by Masuod were represented in better way rather than the findings of Salifu and Mahama. They were descriptive in nature and mostly the data was presented in tabular forms and in images which was easy to understand and analyse. The study concise the large volume of findings and make it presentable.
The one aspect which was done poorly in Masuod’s study was the selection of sample size. The study has a huge sample size and the statistical methods used are pretty difficult to understand, specifically for the people who does not have a knowledge about statistics and accounting. Moreover, Mausod can concise the groups used for survey like making a single group of the auditors which would have make the analysis easier (Masoud, 2017).
In Salifu and Mahama’s study, one thing which was done poorly was selecting the sample size. They should have increased their sample size and include more groups for the purpose of interview. Apart from bankers, auditors and ICAI’s students, the research could also take into account the financial and non-financial committees. Also the areas selected for finding the respondents were less and the number was limited to 150 only. It can be increased in order to have more responses and desirable results (Salifu and Mahama, 2015).
References
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